Changing International Political Order - 3 | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Disintegration of the USSR

• The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was formed after the socialist revolution in Russia in 1917, which brought an end to the Russian empire.
• The USSR was a loose confederation of 15 republics, with Russia as the leading republic.
• From 1922 to 1991, the USSR was a powerful entity with significant control over global politics.
• The disintegration of the USSR into smaller units was primarily due to Mikhail Gorbachev’s economic and political reforms known as Perestroika(restructuring) and Glasnost(openness).
• This period marked the end of the Cold War between the two superpowers, the USA and the USSR.
• Key events during this time included the fall of the Berlin Wall and the shift of power from the Soviet center to the republics.
• The breakup of the USSR led to the USA becoming the sole global power, ending the bipolarity of the world order.

Problems with the USSR

• Bureaucratic and authoritarian system.
• Democracy was merely a formality.
• No freedom of speech.
• Single-party system that was unaccountable to the people.
• Russian dominance led to the neglect of other republics' interests.
• High defense expenditure with low investment in infrastructure and technology.

Major Events that led to disintegration of the USSR

Reasons for the Disintegration of the USSR: 1. Crisis in the Socialist Bloc: Many Eastern European countries began protesting against their own governments and the USSR. The lack of timely intervention from the USSR contributed to the downfall of communist governments in these countries after World War II.

• Fall of the Berlin Wall: After World War II, Germany was divided between the socialist USSR and the capitalist West. The fall of the Berlin Wall triggered events that ultimately led to the disintegration of the USSR.
• Political and Economic Reforms in the USSR: Gorbachev recognized the economic and political issues within the USSR and initiated reforms aimed at reviving the economy. These reforms leaned towards a market economy, deviating from traditional communist policies. Many communist leaders opposed Gorbachev's reforms, leading to a coup attempt in 1991.
• Opposition to the Coup: Boris Yeltsin, elected by popular vote in the Russian Republic, opposed the coup and the central control of the USSR. He advocated for the freedom of republics, democratization, and rapid economic reforms. The hard-line Communist elite sought to undermine Gorbachev's reform agenda.
• Power Shift from Soviet Center to Republics: Republics like Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus gained significant power and declared the disbandment of the Soviet Union.

Factors Leading to the Disintegration of the USSR

1. Economic Weakness
   • Economic weakness was a major cause of dissatisfaction in the USSR.
   • There was a significant shortage of consumer goods.
   • Factors contributing to economic weakness included:
   • Heavy spending on the military.
   • Maintenance of satellite states in Eastern Europe.
   • Maintenance of Central Asian Republics within the USSR.
2. Political Unaccountability
   • The USSR was under single-party rule for about 70 years, leading to authoritarianism.
   • There was widespread corruption and a lack of transparency.
   • Gorbachev’s decision to allow multiparty elections and create a presidency for the Soviet Union initiated a slow process of democratization, destabilizing Communist control and contributing to the USSR's collapse.
3. Gorbachev’s Reforms
   • Gorbachev’s reforms initially provided freedom but led to increased demands for more rapid progress.
   • There was a strong desire among the people to catch up with the West quickly.
4. Rise of Nationalism
   • Nationalism surged in countries like Russia, the Baltic republics, Ukraine, and Georgia.
   • This rise in national sentiment was a crucial and immediate cause of the USSR's disintegration.
   • Prosperous republics were reluctant to subsidize the less developed Central Asian republics.

Consequences of the Disintegration of the USSR

1. End of Ideological Battle
   • The disintegration of the USSR highlighted the shortcomings of the socialistic model of economic governance.
   • It was perceived as a victory of capitalism over socialism, marking the ‘end of ideology’ thesis.
2. Rise of Free-Market Economic Model
   • The dominance of Western institutions like the IMF and World Bank in global economic governance encouraged developing countries to adopt neo-liberal economic policies.
   • India embraced a free-market economic model through LPG reforms post-1991.
3. Decline in Financial Aid to Other Countries
   • Despite being a member of NAM, India had mutual strategic cooperation with the USSR as per the 1971 Indo-Soviet Treaty.
   • Financial aid from the Soviet Union to India significantly decreased after the USSR's disintegration.
   • This reduction in aid contributed to India’s balance of payments crisis in 1991.
4. Reorganization of Eastern Europe
   • Political changes in Europe diminished the division between Western and Eastern Europe.
   • Events like the demolition of the Berlin Wall, the unification of Germany, the end of the Warsaw Pact, and the rise of democratic regimes reshaped European politics.
   • The enlargement of the European Union led to the emergence of a new economic bloc.
5. Rise of Central Asia
   • Central Asia emerged as a new center of global interest, particularly due to Chinese expansionist ambitions in the region.

Conclusion

The disintegration of the USSR marked a phase of US dominance in world politics. Countries like India maintained good relations with Russia post-disintegration and shared the vision of a multipolar world order.