Cholas: Administration, Village economy and Society | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

The Chola Empire was founded by Vijayalaya Chola, who initially served as a subordinate under the Pallavas. In AD 850, he seized control of Tanjore. By the late ninth century, the Cholas had triumphed over the Pallavas of Kanchi (Tondaimandalam) and significantly weakened the Pandyas, thereby consolidating their power over the southern Tamil region.

The Cholas significantly influenced the development of administration, society, art, and architecture in South India. This era marked their emergence as a formidable maritime power, with architecture reaching new heights of excellence.

Military Conquests 

Apart from their conquest of South Indian kingdoms, the Cholas are significant for their rise as a maritime power. They established a powerful navy, which they used to expand their territories and promote economic interests.

The peak of Chola power was achieved under Raja Raja I and Rajendra I, marking the formative period of Chola imperialism.

Rajaraja I:

• Conquests and Expansion: Rajaraja I began his conquests by attacking the alliance of the Pandya,Chera kingdoms, and Ceylon(Sri Lanka). After defeating King Mahinda V of Ceylon, he established Polonnaruva as a Chola province in North Ceylon, expanding Chola territory.
• Commercial Interests: He annexed the Maldives to enhance Chola commercial interests.
• Rivalry with the Chalukyas: Rajaraja I conquered parts of modern Mysore, intensifying rivalry with the Chalukyas.

Rajendra I:

• Expansionist Policies: Rajendra I, who succeeded Rajaraja I in 1014 A.D. after ruling jointly for a time, continued his father’s policies of conquest and annexation, further elevating Chola power and prestige.
• Conquests in Ceylon: He made extensive conquests in Ceylon, establishing Pandya and Kerala as viceroyalties under Chola rule.
• Campaigns in North India: Rajendra I attacked Bengal through Kalinga, defeating Pala ruler Mahipala in 1022 A.D., but he did not annex territory in northern India.
• Title of Gangaikondachola: To commemorate his victory, he assumed the title Gangaikondachola(the Chola conqueror of the Ganges) and built a new capital,Gangaikondacholapuram(the city of the Chola conqueror of the Ganges) near the mouth of the Kaveri River.
• Maritime Conquests: Using his naval forces, Rajendra I invaded the Malaya Peninsula and the Srivijaya Empire, which included areas like Sumatra,Java, and nearby islands, to protect trade routes to China.
• Diplomatic Missions to China: He sent two diplomatic missions to China for political and commercial purposes.
• Spread of Indian Culture: Conquests in Southeast Asia led to the spread of Indian culture, including language, sculpture, and temple architecture, in the region.
• Maritime Power: The Chola achievements in maritime conquests were unique as they were the first to recognize the importance of naval power, effectively using it to pursue territorial and economic interests. The Bay of Bengal became a Chola lake under their rule.

Administration

Chola Administration:

• King's Role: The king held the highest authority in the Chola administration, supported by a council of ministers known as Udankuttam.
• Strength of Monarchy: The vast resources and extent of the Chola Empire enhanced the power and prestige of the monarchy, evident in the grand capital cities like Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram, large royal courts, and extensive temple grants.
• Hereditary Monarchy: The Chola government operated as a hereditary monarchy, typically following the rule of primogeniture. The king often appointed his Yuvaraja (heir) during his reign.
• Royal Tours: The kings undertook royal tours to improve administrative efficiency, supported by a detailed administrative structure with officials called perundanam and sirudanam.

Revenue Administration:

• The land revenue department was well organized, with lands carefully surveyed and classified for revenue assessment.
• Land revenue could be collected in cash or kind, with the state under Rajaraja demanding one-third of the gross produce.
• In addition to land revenue, the government collected tolls, customs, professional taxes, ceremonial dues, and judicial fines.
• During difficult times, tax remissions were granted.
• Major government expenditures included the king and his court, the army and navy, and infrastructure like roads, irrigation tanks, and canals.

Military Administration:

• The Cholas maintained a standing army comprising elephants, cavalry, infantry, and navy.
• The royal troops, known as Kaikkolaperumpadai, included the Velaikkarar, a personal troop responsible for the king's defense.
• Military training was emphasized, and military cantonments called kadagams were established.
• The Cholas achieved significant naval accomplishments during this period.
• The Velaikkarars were elite troops who served as the king's bodyguards, pledging their lives for his protection and even readiness to self-immolate at his funeral.

Provincial Administration:

• The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams, each further divided into valanadus and nadus, with autonomous villages within each nadu.
• Royal princes or officers typically governed the mandalams.
• Perundaram were higher officials, while Sirutaram were lower officials.
• Officials were compensated through land assignments called jivitas, depending on their status.

Local self-government under the Cholas 

The system of village autonomy with assemblies (Sabhas, Urs, and Nagaram) and their committees (Variyams) developed through the ages and reached its culmination during the Chola rule.

Inscriptions and Village Councils:

• Two inscriptions from the period of Parantaka I, found at Uttaramerur, provide insights into the formation and functions of village councils.
• These inscriptions, dated around 920 A.D. during the reign of Parantaka Chola (907-955 A.D.), are considered significant documents in Indian history.
• The inscriptions serve as a written constitution for the village assembly that operated 1,000 years ago.

Uttaramerur: Historical Significance:

• Uttaramerur, located in the Kancheepuram district, was established around 750 A.D. by the Pallava king Nandivarman II.
• The region was successively ruled by the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Sambuvarayars, Vijayanagara Rayas, and Nayaks.
• The village is known for its three significant temples: Sundara Varadaraja Perumal temple, Subramanya temple, and Kailasanatha temple.

Temples and Inscriptions:

• The temples in Uttaramerur have numerous inscriptions, particularly from the reigns of Raja Raja Chola (985-1014 A.D.), his son Rajendra Chola, and Vijayanagar emperor Krishnadeva Raya.
• Both Rajendra Chola and Krishnadeva Raya visited Uttaramerur.

Village Assembly and Administration:

• Uttaramerur was designed based on the principles outlined in the agama texts, with the village assembly mandapa at the center and all temples oriented towards it.
• While village assemblies may have existed before Parantaka Chola's time, it was during his reign that the village administration was refined through elections.
• Inscriptions in various parts of Tamil Nadu mention village assemblies, but the inscriptions at Uttaramerur provide the earliest and most detailed information about the functioning of elected village assemblies.

Democratic Practices in Village Assemblies:

• The Uttaramerur inscriptions illustrate the democratic nature of village governance during the Chola period, detailing the composition of wards, qualifications for candidates, disqualification criteria, election procedures, and the establishment of committees with elected members.
• Secular transactions related to administration, judiciary, commerce, agriculture, transportation, and irrigation regulations are recorded on the walls of the mandapa, reflecting the efficient governance of village society in ancient times.
• Villagers had the right to recall elected representatives for failing in their duties.
• All villagers, including infants, were required to attend the assembly during elections, with exceptions for the sick or those on pilgrimages.

Committees and Their Responsibilities:

• Various committees were responsible for maintaining irrigation tanks, roads, drought relief, gold testing, and other local affairs.
• Committees such as the Annual Committee, Garden Committee, Tank Committee, and Gold Committee were chosen annually to oversee temple maintenance, agriculture, irrigation, tax collection, and road construction.

Village Assembly Constitution:

• The village assembly of Uttaramerur drafted a constitution for elections, dividing the village into 30 wards, with one representative elected from each ward.
• Specific qualifications and disqualifications for candidates were outlined, emphasizing age limits, property ownership, and educational qualifications.
• The mode of election involved writing names on pot-tickets from each ward, with procedures for drawing and announcing the selected candidates.

Committee Functions and Regulations:

• The elected committees had specific durations, with provisions for removal of members found guilty of offenses.
• Committees such as the Pancavara and Gold Committees were formed through similar pot-ticket processes, with restrictions on eligibility based on previous committee service.
• The accountant of the village was responsible for maintaining honest accounts and submitting them for review.

Royal Oversight and Local Autonomy:

• The Chola emperors generally respected the decisions of village assemblies, which operated autonomously based on their constitutions and customs.
• Local assemblies addressed local issues, with the central government retaining the right to intervene in emergencies and ensuring that local decisions aligned with central policies.
• Close ties existed between some Brahmana Sabhas and the Chola court, with royal officials present during significant resolutions.

Village economy

In ancient India, villages were primarily classified into three types based on their population composition and land ownership. These types are:

Intercaste Villages:

• These villages had a mixed population from different castes.
• Land was owned by people from various classes, and taxes were paid to the king in the form of land revenue.
• This type of village was the most common.

Brahmadeya or Agrahara Villages:

• These villages were granted to Brahmins and were exempt from taxes.
• Brahmins held superior rights over the land, and if the land was owned by a group of Brahmins, the rights were held in common.
• Brahmins, who were not cultivators themselves, would have the land cultivated by original agricultural communities or by settling new ones. This led to deforestation and the extension of cultivation into previously uncultivated land.
• In Brahmadeya villages, Brahmins would give Kutimai, a subordinate land right to artisans and service providers (such as washermen) to ensure their services.
• These villages became areas of settlement for Brahmins, non-Brahmin cultivators, and service providers, playing a role in social and economic integration.

Devadana Villages:

• These villages were granted to deities, with the revenues dedicated to temples.
• During the Chola period, Devadana villages gained popularity as temples became central to community life.

Economic Activity and Prosperity

• Agriculture and industry thrived during this period.
• Reclamation of forest lands and the construction and maintenance of irrigation tanks contributed to agricultural prosperity.
• The weaving industry, especially silk-weaving in Kanchi, flourished.
• Metalworks developed due to the high demand for temple images and utensils.
• Commerce and trade were vibrant, facilitated by trunk roads and merchant guilds. Coins made of gold, silver, and copper were issued in various denominations.
• Commercial contacts between the Chola Empire and regions like China, Sumatra, Java, and Arabia were extensive. Arabian horses were imported in large numbers to strengthen the cavalry.

Society

During the Chola period, society was organized into a rigid caste system, where groups were hereditary and linked to specific occupations. The Brahmins and Kshatriyas held special privileges, with Brahmins enjoying a particularly elevated status.

Brahmins:

• Brahmins were at the top of the social hierarchy, wielding both religious and economic power.
• They were exempt from taxes and received royal support for land ownership.
• Their primary duties involved learning and teaching the Vedas, performing rituals, and serving as temple priests. Some Brahmins engaged in trade as well.
• They faced lighter punishments for any offenses.

Kshatriyas:

• The Kshatriya class was nearly absent during this period, leading to a reliance on Brahmins and the dominant peasant class for authority.
• The Nattar community emerged as the dominant peasant group, with cultivators serving as their subordinate clients.

Social Divisions:

• The period saw economic improvements for certain castes, leading to the division of society into Valangai (right-hand) and Idangai (left-hand) divisions.
• Newly assimilated castes from peripheral areas were often grouped into these divisions, causing conflicts, especially during the reign of Kulotunga I.
• Despite these conflicts, the Cholas focused on suppressing unrest rather than improving social conditions.

Women’s Status:

• The status of women did not improve during the Chola period.
• Practices such as sati(widow immolation) were prevalent among royal families.

Devadasi System:

• The Cholas institutionalized the Devadasi system, where women dedicated to temple service also played a role in nurturing art and culture.
• However, this system later became exploited and lost its original purpose, marking it as a failed experiment of the Chola dynasty.

Conclusion

• In summary, while the Cholas made significant contributions in administration, society, politics, art, and culture, they faced challenges in social cohesion.
• Social conflicts increased, the status of women remained stagnant, and their initiatives like the Devadasi system did not achieve lasting success.