Colonisation and Decolonisation: Vietnam | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Indo-China under French Colonial Rule

• Indo-China, comprising Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, was part of the French Empire in Southeast Asia. This region experienced almost continuous conflict following the end of the Second World War.
• The French colonial system significantly restricted political freedom in Indo-China. The primary goal of colonialism was to assimilate the cultural, political, and social aspects of the colonies with those of France. This approach effectively denied Indo-China the right to self-determination.

The Struggle for Vietnam's Independence

Together with Laos and Cambodia, Vietnam was part of the French Empire in Southeast Asia, known as the Indochinese Union, which was established in 1887.

French Colonial Rule:

• The French were generally effective colonial administrators. They built roads, railways, schools, hospitals, and even a university in Hanoi.
• However, there was very little industrialization, and most of the population remained poor peasants.

Emergence of Nationalism:

• In the 1930s,protest movements began to emerge but were suppressed by the French authorities.
• The French attitude fueled nationalist and revolutionary sentiments, leading to increased support for the newly formed Vietnamese Communist Party by Ho Chi Minh in 1929.

Ho Chi Minh's Vision:

• Ho Chi Minh, who had spent time in France, China, and the USSR, was initially a committed nationalist but became a committed communist after his travels.
• His dream was a united Vietnam under communist rule.

World War II and Japanese Occupation:

• The French defeat in Europe in June 1940 raised hopes for Vietnamese independence.
• However, these hopes were dashed when Japanese forces occupied Indochina.
• When the nationalists and communists launched a widespread uprising in southern Vietnam, the French (under the Vichy government, allied with Germany and Japan) and the Japanese brutally suppressed the uprising.

Formation of the Vietminh:

• With the communist movement nearly destroyed in the South, Ho Chi Minh moved north and organized the communist and nationalist resistance movement known as the League for the Independence of Vietnam, or Vietminh.
• The Vietminh had to wait for the right moment to act against the Japanese.

Post-War Struggles and the Declaration of Independence:

• In the summer of 1945, with Japanese defeat imminent, Ho Chi Minh prepared to seize the initiative before the French could return.
• Vietminh forces took over Hanoi, Saigon (renamed Ho Chi Minh City), and most large towns.
• In September 1945, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed with Ho Chi Minh as president.

International Intervention and French Reoccupation:

• However, the declaration was premature.
• The Allies had agreed that the southern half of Vietnam would come under British and French administration after the war.
• When British forces arrived, they decided to restore French control as quickly as possible.
• Interestingly, the British used Japanese troops, who remained in Vietnam after their surrender, to suppress the Vietminh in the south.

French Control and Increased Tensions:

• By the end of 1945, order was restored, and around 50,000 French troops arrived to take control.
• Initially, the French seemed willing to compromise, controlling the south but recognizing the independence of the Vietnamese Republic in the north under the French Union.

Escalation of Conflict:

• However, by the summer of 1946, it became clear that the French did not intend to grant genuine independence to the north.
• Ho Chi Minh demanded complete independence for all of Vietnam. When the French rejected this, hostilities began.
• The conflict escalated when the French shelled the northern port of Haiphong, killing thousands of Vietnamese civilians.

Vietnam: A Struggle for Independence and the Impact of Cold War Politics

The struggle for independence in Vietnam unfolded over three decades of intense conflict, from 1946 to 1975, and can be divided into two main phases. The first phase witnessed the fight against French colonial rule, while the second phase involved a civil war in South Vietnam, exacerbated by American intervention aimed at curbing the spread of communism.

First Phase of War (1946-54)

• From 1946 to 1954, the Vietnamese people fought for their independence from French colonial rule.
• During World War II, Indochina was occupied by the Japanese, who allowed the French to maintain a colonial administration under indirect rule.
• After the war, the French aimed to reassert control, but resistance against both Japanese and French occupation was organized by the League for Vietnamese Independence (Vietminh), led by the communist Ho Chi Minh.
• Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam independent in 1945, but the French refused to leave, leading to the start of the conflict in 1946.
• The struggle continued until the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954, despite American support for the French due to Cold War concerns about communism.
• The French were ultimately defeated due to guerrilla tactics, strong public support for the Vietminh, post-war weaknesses, and support from China and Russia.

Geneva Agreement (1954):

• Laos and Cambodia were to be independent.
• Vietnam was temporarily divided into North and South at the 17th parallel.
• The Ho Chi Minh government was recognized in North Vietnam, while South Vietnam was to have a separate government with elections planned for 1956.
• An international commission was to oversee the elections, but the promised elections never took place, leading to civil war.

Second Phase of War (1954-75)

Why the Civil War Started in South Vietnam and US Involvement:

• The civil war in South Vietnam began due to the violation of the Geneva Agreement and fears of communism. The expected national elections, which would likely favor the Vietminh, never occurred because the USA, supporting the South Vietnamese regime, feared a communist victory.
• President Ngo Dinh Diem, chosen in a national referendum in 1955, refused to prepare for the elections and established a strongly anti-communist regime.
• US President Eisenhower was concerned about the spread of communism and the 'domino theory,' fearing that if one country fell to communism, others would follow.
• Diem's government lost popularity due to his background, perceived discrimination against the majority Buddhist population, corruption, and American influence. This unpopularity drove more people toward the communists or the Vietcong.
• In 1960, various opposition groups, including former communists, formed the National Liberation Front (NLF), demanding a democratic government and reforms.
• Diem was overthrown and killed in a military coup in November 1963, but the basic situation remained unchanged, and the guerrilla war continued.

US Military Presence Increases:

• As the situation in South Vietnam deteriorated, the USA increased its military presence, moving beyond economic aid and military advisors.
• Initially supporting Diem's regime, the US saw the need for a strong response against communism, especially after failures in North Korea and Cuba.
• The US intervention was publicly framed as protecting the independence of the Vietnamese people, but the real goal was to keep Vietnam in the non-communist bloc.
• The Vietcong were receiving support from North Vietnam, which led to increased American involvement.
• Unlike in Korea, where the US acted as part of a UN coalition, in Vietnam, the US acted alone due to the critical stance of new UN members on US intervention.

Conclusion
The conflict in Vietnam was deeply influenced by both the struggle for independence from colonial rule and the broader Cold War dynamics, leading to a complex and tragic series of events.

The Phases of War in the Second Phase

This phase corresponds to different American presidencies, each introducing new policies regarding the Vietnam War.

John F. Kennedy (1961-63):

Kennedy aimed to limit American involvement to an anti-guerrilla campaign.

• He deployed approximately 16,000 "advisers" along with helicopters and other equipment.
• Introduced the "safe village" policy, relocating local peasants into fortified villages to isolate the Vietcong.

This approach failed as most Vietcong were peasants who continued their operations within the villages.

Lyndon Johnson (1963-69):

Johnson inherited a situation where the Vietcong and the National Liberation Front (NLF) controlled about 40% of South Vietnamese villages, with significant peasant support.

• He bombed North Vietnam in 1965, hoping to pressure Ho Chi Minh to cease hostilities.
• Many historians label this period as "Johnson's War," criticizing his deep commitment to Vietnam.
• However, he was bound by the commitments made by his predecessors.

Over the next seven years:

• More bombs were dropped on North Vietnam than on Germany during World War II.
• Over half a million American troops were deployed to the South.

Despite these efforts, the Vietcong launched a significant offensive in February 1968, capturing about 80% of towns and villages, leading many Americans to doubt the war's viability.Public pressure in the USA forced Johnson to reconsider the military approach:

• On March 31, 1968, he announced a suspension of bombings in North Vietnam, frozen troop levels, and a pursuit of negotiated peace.
• Peace talks began in Paris in May 1968, but a quick resolution was elusive, extending for another five years.

Johnson aimed to advance the Great Society initiative, focusing on poverty alleviation and racial justice. However, funding for this program was strained due to war expenses.

Richard Nixon (1969-74):

Nixon recognized the need for a new strategy, as public opinion limited further troop deployments.

• In early 1969, the troops included half a million Americans, 50,000 South Koreans, and 750,000 South Vietnamese against 450,000 Vietcong and 70,000 North Vietnamese.
• Nixon introduced "Vietnamization," aiming to rearm and train the South Vietnamese army for defense, allowing gradual American troop withdrawal.
• Simultaneously, he intensified bombings in North Vietnam and targeted the Ho Chi Minh Trail through Laos and Cambodia.

Despite these efforts, by the end of 1972, the Vietcong controlled the western half of South Vietnam. Growing domestic and international pressure led Nixon to withdraw forces.

Factors contributing to anti-war sentiment included:

• Intense bombings in North Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
• Use of chemicals to destroy foliage and napalm, causing severe burn injuries and birth deformities.
• Mass civilian casualties, with the My Lai incident in March 1968 being particularly notorious, where American soldiers killed and buried the local population in mass graves.

Improving US-China Relations:

• Nixon recognized the lack of a unified communist threat and improved relations with China, easing trade and travel restrictions.
• In February 1972, Nixon visited Beijing, strengthening ties further.

A ceasefire was arranged for January 1973, stipulating the withdrawal of all American troops and respect for the 17th parallel frontier by both North and South Vietnam. However, the Vietcong continued their campaign, and without American support, President Thieu's government in Saigon collapsed.

In April 1975, Saigon was taken by North Vietnamese and Vietcong forces, leading to the unification of Vietnam under a communist government. In the same year, communist regimes were established in Laos and Cambodia, marking the failure of American policy to prevent the spread of communism in Southeast Asia.
 

Why did the USA fail?

Support for Vietnam and NLF:

• The primary reason for the USA's failure was the widespread support for the Vietcong and the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) among ordinary people. These individuals had genuine grievances against an inefficient government that failed to implement necessary reforms.
• When the NLF was established in 1960, the communists were just one of several opposition groups. By ignoring the legitimacy of the NLF's cause and choosing to support a clearly deficient regime in their obsession with combating communism, the Americans inadvertently encouraged the spread of communism in the South.
• Ho Chi Minh's government in Hanoi began to implement socialist policies focused on industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture.

Guerrilla War:

• The Vietcong, much like the Vietminh before them, were highly skilled in guerrilla warfare and were fighting on familiar ground.
• The Americans found them more challenging to deal with than the conventional armies they faced in Korea.
• Without distinct uniforms, the guerrillas could easily blend in with the local peasant population.
• It proved impossible to stop the flow of supplies and reinforcements along the Ho Chi Minh Trail.

Help from Outside:

• The Vietcong received support from North Vietnam in the form of troops and from China and Russia, who supplied weapons.
• After 1970, the Russian contribution became crucial and included rifles, machine guns, long-range artillery, anti-aircraft missiles, and tanks.

Dedication Towards Unification:

• The North Vietnamese were committed to eventual victory and the unification of their country.
• They demonstrated remarkable resilience by evacuating city populations and relocating factories outside the cities despite suffering heavy casualties and damage from American bombings.

The Effects of the War

• The government of the newly formed Socialist Republic of Vietnam was officially proclaimed in July 1976, with Hanoi as its capital.
• Vietnam was united, but the cost was staggering.
• Between one and two million Vietnamese civilians lost their lives, and around 18 million were left homeless.
• The North Vietnamese army possibly lost as many as 900,000 men, while the South lost 18,000.
• About 50,000 American servicemen died, with an additional 300,000 wounded.
• Approximately a third of the South was severely damaged by explosives and defoliants.
• The challenges of reconstruction were immense, and the new government implemented policies such as concentration camps for opponents and restricted freedom of speech.
• The failure in Vietnam dealt a blow to American prestige and had a profound impact on American society.
• In many circles, involvement in the war was seen as a grave mistake, and this, coupled with the Watergate scandal that forced Nixon to resign, undermined confidence in a political system that could permit such events.
• War veterans, instead of being celebrated as heroes, often faced rejection.
• Future American governments would have to exercise caution before committing the country so deeply in similar situations.
• The war was a victory for the communist world, although both Russia and China reacted with restraint and did not boast about it to any significant extent.
• This perhaps indicated their desire to ease international tensions, even as they gained a powerful ally in the Vietnamese army.

Role of Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam's Struggle for Freedom

Phase 1 – Inter-War Period:

• Ho Chi Minh emerged as a vocal advocate for Vietnamese independence while living in France during World War I.
• In 1919, he led a petition at the Versailles Peace Conference, urging the French colonial government to grant the same rights to its subjects as it did to its rulers.
• Inspired by Lenin's Bolshevik Revolution, he joined the French Communist Party in 1920 and began recruiting members for the Vietnamese nationalist movement, which later became the Indo-Chinese Communist Party.

Phase 2 – During World War II (1939 – 1945):

• With Germany's defeat of France in 1940, Ho Chi Minh saw an opportunity for the Vietnamese nationalist cause.
• Upon returning to Vietnam in January 1941, he organized the Viet Minh, or League for the Independence of Vietnam.
• Seeking support from China, Ho was imprisoned for 18 months by Chiang Kai-Shek's anti-Communist government.

Phase 3 – (1945 – 1954):

• Following the Allied victory in 1945 and the withdrawal of Japanese forces from Vietnam, Viet Minh forces, led by Vo Nguyen Giap, seized Hanoi and declared Ho Chi Minh as president of North Vietnam.
• French military troops took control of southern Vietnam, including Saigon, while Chinese forces entered the north according to Allied agreements.
• Ho negotiated with the French for the withdrawal of Chinese forces and eventual recognition of Vietnam's independence and reunification.
• Despite his efforts for peace, more militant factions within the Viet Minh pushed for war, leading to armed conflict in December 1946.
• During the First Indo-China War, the French established the state of Vietnam (South Vietnam) in July 1949, with Saigon as its capital.
• Armed conflict persisted until the decisive battle at Dien Bien Phu, where Viet Minh forces defeated the French. Subsequent negotiations at Geneva partitioned Indochina and called for reunification elections in 1956.

Phase 4 – (1956 – 1975):

• Backed by the United States, the anti-Communist South Vietnamese government of Ngo Dinh Diem refused to support the Geneva accords and postponed elections indefinitely.
• In 1959, armed conflict resumed as Communist guerrillas launched attacks in South Vietnam.
• In July of the same year, Ho's Worker’s Party linked the establishment of socialism in the North to the cause of unification with the South.
• Although Ho remained the nominal head of North Vietnam during the war, he took a more behind-the-scenes role, while still being a significant symbol of Vietnam's unification.
• The U.S. increased its support for South Vietnam, providing economic aid and military troops. American airstrikes against North Vietnam began in 1965.
• Ho sent a message to the Vietnamese people in July 1966 emphasizing the importance of independence and liberation, which became a rallying cry for the North Vietnamese cause.
• The Tet Offensive in 1968 marked a turning point in American involvement in the Vietnam War, leading to a gradual American withdrawal from the region.
• U.S. President Lyndon Johnson decided to halt the escalation of the war and called for peace talks.
• Ho Chi Minh passed away on September 2, 1969, at the age of 79, while the conflict continued.
• Peace talks dragged on for another five years, during which more American soldiers were killed than in previous years.
• The last U.S. troops left Vietnam in March 1973, and in April 1975, Communist forces seized control of Saigon, renaming it Ho Chi Minh City.