Concepts- Poverty | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction - Poverty

In 2010, the World Bank reported that approximately 2.4 billion people were surviving on less than $2 US per day (World Bank, 2013). Furthermore, the World Health Organization stated in 2011 that daily, 25,000 children under the age of 5 died due to poverty-related issues (Partnership, 2011). Additionally, in 2013, there were 57 million impoverished children of primary school age who did not attend school (UNESCO, 2013).

• Poverty can be defined in various ways depending on the context in which it is being studied. For instance, from a sociological standpoint, poverty refers to a state where an individual lacks the resources or capabilities to participate in and contribute to society. This differs from economic definitions that focus on individual's income and expenditures, such as the measurements of impoverishment used by the World Bank.
• The sociological approach to studying poverty emphasizes external factors that affect an individual's status. As such, poverty is relative to the geographic location where an individual lives and the context within which they exist in society.

Causes of Poverty: Liberal and Conservative Perspectives

Sociological theories on poverty generally fall into two ideological frameworks:

• Liberal Perspective: Liberal-leaning thinkers view poverty as the result of systemic failures in providing necessary resources and tools for citizens to avoid or escape poverty. Poverty, from this perspective, is caused by structural factors that prevent people from accessing opportunities to improve their lives.
• Conservative Perspective: Conservative thinkers, on the other hand, attribute poverty to individual choices or missteps. They believe that individuals fail to utilize the available resources and tools to lift themselves out of poverty. From this perspective, poverty is a personal responsibility issue.

Historical Theories on Poverty and Inequality

Throughout history, social theorists have offered valuable insights into the economic ordering and structure of society, which can help us better understand poverty. Some key theorists and their ideas include:

1. Marx and Engels: In Victorian Britain, Marx and Engels pointed to the stark divide between the impoverished working classes, who only had their labor to sell, and the capitalist classes, who could exploit this labor for profit by owning the means of production.
2. Max Weber: Weber emphasized not only the economic factors in producing and sustaining inequality but also the influence of power, status, and prestige in perpetuating dominant relations.
3. Emile Durkheim: Durkheim highlighted the functional necessity of social inequality for the well-being of society. He believed that some degree of inequality was necessary for social order and stability.

These early theoretical ideas continue to influence sociological thinking on poverty and inequality to this day. Understanding these perspectives can help policymakers and researchers develop effective strategies to address poverty in both developed and developing countries.

Poverty and the ‘undeserving poor’

• The Role of Social Structures and Individual Agency: Sociological thinking on poverty revolves around the relative importance of social structures and individual agency in explaining the prevalence and perpetuation of poverty over time. Sociologists argue that the broader context and the available opportunities for people play a more significant role in explaining and understanding poverty than individual behaviors and choices. This perspective contrasts with the popular view that the 'undeserving poor' are responsible for their own poverty due to their supposed fecklessness or moral failings.
• Welfare System and Welfare Dependency: Another recent argument suggests that the welfare system is responsible for encouraging and supporting claimants into welfare dependency. This perspective claims that the system fosters a 'culture of worklessness,' 'troubled families,' or families who have never worked as the primary explanations for poverty. However, this argument often overlooks the fact that not all unemployed people are poor, and not all of those experiencing poverty are out of work.
• Conflation of Poverty with Other Social Issues: The tendency to conflate poverty with other social issues, such as unemployment, welfare receipt, or substance abuse, indicates a broader propensity to portray poverty as a problem created by those experiencing it. This perspective often uncritically cites these conditions as explanations for poverty, ignoring the structural factors that contribute to poverty. Moreover, this conflation also downplays the significance of poverty as a social issue that requires a more comprehensive understanding and policy intervention.

The ‘cultural turn’, consumption and social class

• The Cultural Turn and Social Class : The cultural turn in sociology refers to the increasing emphasis on understanding the role of culture in shaping social life. This perspective argues that social class distinctions have become more complex and less significant for lifestyles and life experiences. It suggests that individuals have greater control over their own destinies and opportunities for identity formation, which are more reflective of individual choice than in the past.
• Consumption and Identity Formation: Consumption practices, such as what people buy and consume, are often considered as a key mechanism for individuals to demonstrate their individuality and create their own identities. This perspective argues that access to consumption allows people to construct their lifestyles and identities in ways that reflect their own preferences and choices, rather than being determined by social class.
• Consumption as a Source of Stratification and Stigma: However, consumption can also be an important element of distinction and stratification. People experiencing poverty often find it difficult to participate in expected consumption behaviors, which may lead to stigmatization. The spending habits and patterns of those in the greatest poverty are often subjected to scrutiny and judgment by wider society. This suggests that, while consumption may provide opportunities for individuality and personal choice, it can also reinforce and support social class divisions and distinctions.
• The Continued Importance of Social Class: Despite the cultural turn and the focus on consumption as a means of identity formation, social class remains an important influence on various aspects of people's lives. Social class positioning continues to affect educational attainment, job opportunities, and leisure activities. Therefore, while the cultural turn and consumption practices may have led to some changes in the way social class distinctions are experienced, they have not completely diminished the importance of social class in shaping life experiences and opportunities.

Poverty, Stigma and Shame

• Role of Poverty in Stigma and Shame: Poverty and material deprivation significantly contribute to the development of stigma and shame in society. People in poverty are often depicted as 'the other' through the use of specific language, labels, and images that reinforce their inferior status. This negative stereotyping occurs at various levels and in different sections of society, including among those working in welfare sectors, who may mistakenly attribute individual character traits and behavior as the primary reasons for unemployment.
• Internalization of Stereotypes and Stigmatization: People experiencing poverty may also internalize and perpetuate these negative stereotypes and stigmatization. This occurs as a result of the pressure they face to disassociate themselves from the stigma and shame associated with their disadvantaged status.
• Capitalism and the Evolving Labor Market: Employment has long been considered the best route out of poverty. However, the changing nature of the labor market and work itself has made it increasingly difficult for individuals to escape poverty through employment alone. Factors such as worsening working conditions, declining public sector jobs, increasing unemployment and underemployment, and the growth of low-paid and part-time work contribute to the prevalence of in-work poverty.
• In-work Poverty and the Free-market Economy: In-work poverty is a growing concern in countries that have adopted aggressive free-market economic principles. The rise of low-paid work, or 'poor work,' has become an integral aspect of the contemporary labor market. As a result, in-work poverty has emerged as an increasingly important factor in explaining contemporary poverty.

Poverty, Prejudice & Racism

In the 1960s, President Lyndon Johnson declared a "war on poverty" shortly after assuming the presidency. Assembling the Kerner Commission, Johnson sent a team of experts to review what was a significant issue in the United States. Their first report focused not on a wide range of social groups suffering from poverty, but instead on a single social group — blacks. By doing so, critics have since argued, the Johnson administration missed an important opportunity to address a broad-reaching issue.

• The Kerner Commission's Narrow Focus: The Kerner Commission's report assessed crime among black communities and a legacy of discrimination rather than the overall economy or the other factors that can contribute to continued impoverishment. Critics argue that this narrow focus on one social group failed to address the broader issue of poverty in the United States.
• Poverty Levels Among Different Racial and Ethnic Groups: There is no denying that poverty levels are much higher on average among blacks and other minority groups than among Caucasians. In the United States, between 2007 and 2011, 25.8 percent of black Americans, 23.3 percent of Hispanics, and 27 percent of American Indians lived below the poverty line. In comparison, only 11.6 percent of whites and 11.7 percent of Asians were living in similar economic conditions.
• The Missed Opportunity to Address Broader Issues: By focusing solely on the black community, the Johnson administration missed an opportunity to address poverty among other racial and ethnic groups, as well as the various factors that contribute to impoverishment. A more comprehensive approach could have led to more effective policies and a greater understanding of the complex issue of poverty in the United States.

Government Disparities and Underlying Racism

The disparities in poverty levels among different racial and ethnic groups have led many scholars to argue that governments distribute resources and services unequally. In fact, some believe that underlying racism contributes to social stratification. There is considerable evidence supporting such theories, covering a wide range of poverty characteristics.

• Employment and Monetary Policy: One study from the United States suggests that monetary policies designed to strengthen labor markets fail to protect all social groups equally. An underlying theme of discrimination among policymakers leads to insufficient protections for certain races, leaving them vulnerable during economic downturns and more likely to experience shorter employment tenures (Rodgers, 2008).
• Housing Disparities in the US: Another area of systemic inequality is evident in housing disparities in the US. Census data from mid-2013 showed that 73% of whites were classified as homeowners compared to 42% of blacks and 46% of Hispanics (Callis & Kresin, 2013). Another study revealed that three out of every four residents of neighborhoods with concentrated poverty were either black or Hispanic (Little, 2008).
• European Immigration and Integration: In Europe, increasing immigration has brought numerous low-income racial and ethnic groups into major urban centers. Some people blame the impoverished economic and social status of these groups on their reluctance to integrate fully into the host countries' cultures. For example, one editorial stated that "Europe's current social problems stem, in part, from an increasingly Islamicized immigrant population that is ambivalent about integrating fully into secular French, Dutch, or German culture."
• Post-Apartheid South Africa: In South Africa, efforts have been made to address the racial disparities that were institutionalized during the apartheid era. However, since the transition to a democratic government led by blacks in the early 1990s, there remains a significant sense of income and labor market inequality. Furthermore, there is a lower rate of upward mobility among blacks compared to whites in the post-apartheid nation (Liebbrandt & Woolard, 2001).

Racism: A Cause of Poverty?

The question of whether racism is responsible for poverty in a multicultural and multiracial society has been debated throughout modern history. Many studies have explored this issue, and it is apparent that impoverished social groups in such societies tend to be heavily populated by minorities. In 1962, Michael Harrington suggested that structural and cultural racism in the United States played a role in stratifying society, with people of color and certain ethnicities on the lower end of the spectrum. In his seminal work, The Other America, he argued that racism has permeated society to such an extent that poverty has become somewhat of a tradition, handed down from generation to generation (Wolf, 2007). However, despite many industrialized nations taking significant steps to dismantle racism and ethnocentrism within their institutions, poverty rates have mostly plateaued, and in some cases, they have increased. This indicates that there may be other factors contributing to poverty.

Geographical Factors Influencing Poverty

• It is universally acknowledged that poverty exists in every society, from underdeveloped nations to the wealthiest countries. However, from a sociological perspective, it is essential to recognize that poverty can often be traced to specific geographical locations within a larger system.
• The concept of geography as a significant contributor to poverty (and wealth) has been around for a long time. In the late eighteenth century, Scottish economist Adam Smith proposed that the most effective way to develop a successful and healthy economy is to implement a free-market system.
• Smith's theory can be supported by observing the wealthiest nations in the world, such as those in North America, western Europe, Australia, and East Asia, which all have free-market economies. In fact, half of the top 1% of the wealthiest individuals globally reside in the United States (Milanović, 2011).

Conclusion

Poverty is a complex and multifaceted issue that varies depending on the context in which it is studied. Sociological perspectives on poverty highlight the roles of social structures, individual agency, and cultural factors in shaping people's experiences of poverty. Historical theories on poverty and inequality, the cultural turn, and the role of consumption in social class distinctions contribute to our understanding of the causes and consequences of poverty. Additionally, the intersections of poverty with stigma, shame, prejudice, and racism reveal the ways in which these social issues are interconnected and reinforce one another. Finally, geographical factors also play a significant role in influencing poverty rates, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive and context-specific approach to addressing this persistent global challenge.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Poverty

How does the World Bank define poverty?

The World Bank defines poverty as living on less than $1.90 per day. In 2010, they reported that approximately 2.4 billion people were surviving on less than $2 US per day.

What are the main differences between the liberal and conservative perspectives on poverty?

Liberal-leaning thinkers view poverty as the result of systemic failures in providing necessary resources and tools for citizens to avoid or escape poverty. They believe that structural factors prevent people from accessing opportunities to improve their lives. On the other hand, conservative thinkers attribute poverty to individual choices or missteps, believing that individuals fail to utilize the available resources and tools to lift themselves out of poverty.

How does consumption contribute to social stratification and stigma in poverty?

While consumption practices may allow individuals to demonstrate their individuality and create their own identities, they can also reinforce and support social class divisions and distinctions. People experiencing poverty often find it difficult to participate in expected consumption behaviors, which may lead to stigmatization and judgment by wider society.

What factors have led to the rise of in-work poverty?

Factors that contribute to the prevalence of in-work poverty include worsening working conditions, declining public sector jobs, increasing unemployment and underemployment, and the growth of low-paid and part-time work.

How does racism contribute to poverty in multicultural and multiracial societies?

Racism can play a role in stratifying society, with people of color and certain ethnicities on the lower end of the spectrum. It can also contribute to disparities in employment opportunities, housing, and income levels. However, other factors such as geographical location and economic systems may also play a significant role in poverty levels.