Conflict in Middle East | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Overview of the Middle East Conflict

The Middle East has been a troubled region since 1945, experiencing almost continuous wars and civil wars. The area includes countries like Egypt, Sudan, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, Turkey, Yemen, United Arab Emirates, and Oman. Most of these countries, except for Turkey and Iran, are predominantly Arab. Iran, while not Arab, has a significant Arab population, particularly around the northern Persian Gulf. The region also includes Israel, a small Jewish state established by the United Nations in 1948 in Palestine.

The Creation of Israel and Arab Reaction:

• The establishment of Israel in Palestine, which was Arab land, angered Arab nations worldwide.
• Arabs blamed Britain for supporting the Jews and the USA for strongly backing the idea of a Jewish state.
• Arab states refused to recognize Israel and vowed to destroy it.

Conflicts and Wars:

• There were four major wars between Israel and Arab states (1948-49, 1956, 1967, and 1973), but Israel survived these attacks.
• The conflict between Israel and the Palestinians continued without a permanent peace agreement.

Other Themes in Middle East Affairs:

• Political and Economic Unity: Some Arabs aimed for unity among Arab states.
• Foreign Intervention: Many Arabs wanted to end foreign involvement in their countries.

Western and Communist Interest:

• The Middle East attracted attention from Western and communist powers due to its strategic location and rich oil resources.

Conflicts Involving Individual Arab States:

• Civil war in Lebanon(1975-1990).
• War between Iran and Iraq(1980-1988).
• First Gulf War (1990-1991) when Iraq invaded Kuwait and was expelled by an international coalition led by the USA.

Differing Perspectives:

• Interpretations of the Middle East situation vary by viewpoint.
• For instance,British politicians and journalists often viewed Colonel Nasser of Egypt as a dangerous figure, while many Arabs saw him as a hero symbolizing Arab unity and freedom.

Arab Unity and Interference from the Outside World

Commonalities Among Arabs:

• All Arabs share the Arabic language as their means of communication.
• The majority are Muslims, with the exception of about half the population of Lebanon, who are Christian.
• Many Arabs desire the destruction of Israel to allow Palestinian Arabs to reclaim what they believe is their rightful land.
• There is a strong desire among many Arabs for greater political and economic unity, similar to the European Community.

Historical Calls for Arab Unity:

• In 1931, an Islamic conference in Jerusalem declared the Arab lands as a complete and indivisible whole, advocating for their complete independence and unification.

The Arab League:

• Founded in 1945, the Arab League aimed to promote unity among Arab states, initially including Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen.
• Membership eventually expanded to 20 states by 1980.
• Despite its noble goals, the Arab League struggled with internal conflicts and achieved limited political success.

Gamal Abdel Nasser and Pan-Arabism:

• In the mid-1950s, Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt emerged as a leading figure in the pan-Arab movement after gaining prestige following the 1956 Suez Crisis.
• In 1958, Nasser oversaw the unification of Syria and Egypt into the United Arab Republic, with Nasser as president.
• However, this union was short-lived, as Syria withdrew in 1961 due to resentment towards Nasser’s dominance.

Post-Nasser Attempts at Unity:

• After Nasser’s death in 1970, his successor,President Sadat, attempted to create a loose union between Egypt, Libya, and Syria, known as the Federation of Arab Republics, but this initiative lacked significant impact.

Divergence Among Arab States:

• Despite their similarities, deep-seated disagreements prevented closer unity among Arab states.
• Jordan and Saudi Arabia, ruled by conservative royal families, often faced criticism from Egypt and Syria, which had nationalist and socialist governments.
• In 1979, most Arab states severed ties with Egypt after it signed a separate peace treaty with Israel, leading to Egypt’s expulsion from the Arab League.

Historical Interference by Britain and France:

• British and French involvement in the Middle East dates back many years.
• After World War I, Britain and France were given large areas of the Middle East to manage as mandates by the Versailles settlement.
• Although Britain granted independence to Iraq in 1932 and to Jordan in 1946, both countries remained pro-British.
• France granted independence to Syria and Lebanon in 1945 but sought to maintain some influence in the region.

Strategic Importance of the Middle East:

• The Middle East’s strategic position as a crossroads between western nations, the communist bloc, and Third World countries made it highly significant.
• At one time, it produced over a third of the world’s oil, with major producers being Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait.
• Before the availability of North Sea oil and the advent of nuclear power, European nations were heavily dependent on oil supplies from the Middle East.
• To ensure a steady supply, they wanted to establish friendly governments in the oil-producing states.

Shifts in Power Dynamics:

• The lack of unity among Arab states allowed other countries to intervene in the Middle East.
• Many Arab states had nationalist governments that deeply resented western influence.
• One by one, governments perceived as too pro-Western were overthrown and replaced by non-aligned regimes that aimed to act independently of both the East (communist bloc) and the West.

Egypt:

• At the end of World War II, British troops remained in the canal zone, which was crucial for controlling the Suez Canal.
• In 1952, a group of Egyptian army officers overthrew King Farouk, who was seen as too lenient with the British.
• By 1954, Colonel Nasser became president and his defiance against Britain led to the Suez War of 1956, marking the end of British influence in Egypt.

Jordan:

• King Abdullah was placed on the throne by the British in 1946. He was assassinated in 1951 by nationalists who felt he was too aligned with Britain.
• King Hussein, Abdullah’s successor, had to be cautious to survive. He ended the treaty allowing British troops to use bases in Jordan in 1957, leading to the withdrawal of all British troops.

Iraq:

• King Faisal of Iraq and his prime minister,Nuri-es-Said, were pro-British.
• In 1955, they signed the Baghdad Pact with Turkey to establish a joint defense and economic policy.
• The Suez War of 1956 humiliated Britain and encouraged anti-British sentiment in Iraq.
• Faisal and Nuri-es-Said were murdered, and Iraq became a republic in 1958.
• The new government withdrew from the Baghdad Pact and was sympathetic towards Egypt.

Iran:

• In 1945, the Russians attempted to establish a communist government in northern Iran, which bordered the USSR and had a large communist party.
• Reza Pahlevi, the western-educated Shah of Iran, resisted this and signed a defense treaty with the USA in 1950.
• The USA provided Iran with economic and military aid, including tanks and jet fighters.
• A strong nationalist movement in Iran resented foreign influence, particularly the USA and Britain.
• In 1951, Dr. Mussadiq, the Premier of Iran, nationalized the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company and its refinery at Abadan.
• In 1954, a compromise was reached where British Petroleum was allowed 40 percent of the shares, and Iran took 50 percent of the profits.
• The Shah used the profits for modernization and land reform, but resentment grew against his close ties with the USA and suspicions about his wealth.
• In 1979, he was forced to leave, and an Islamic republic was established under Ayatollah Khomeini, who, like Nasser, desired a non-aligned country

Arab-Israel Conflict: The Creation of Israel and the Arab-Israeli War, 1948-1949

Why Did the Creation of the State of Israel Lead to War?

• The roots of the conflict trace back nearly 2,000 years to AD 71 when most Jews were expelled from Palestine, their homeland, by the Romans. Over time, small Jewish communities remained in Palestine, and there was a gradual return of Jews from exile. However, until the late 19th century,Jewish numbers were insufficient to threaten the Arabs, who had come to see Palestine as their homeland.
• In 1897, some European Jews established the World Zionist Organization in Basel, Switzerland. Zionists believed that Jews should return to Palestine and establish a ‘national homeland’ or Jewish state. Having faced persecution in Russia, France, and Germany, Jews sought a safe refuge. The challenge was that Palestine was already inhabited by Arabs, who understandably feared losing their land to the Jews.
• Britain entered the picture in 1917 when Foreign Minister Arthur Balfour expressed support for a Jewish national home in Palestine (known as the Balfour Declaration). After 1919, when Palestine became a British mandate, large numbers of Jews began arriving, leading to strong Arab protests against Jewish immigration and calling for an independent Palestine.
• The British government, in 1922, assured that Jews would not occupy all of Palestine and that the rights of Palestinian Arabs would not be compromised. Balfour’s declaration also emphasized that the civil and religious rights of non-Jewish communities in Palestine should not be prejudiced.
• The British aimed to foster peaceful coexistence between Jews and Arabs but underestimated the deep-seated religious divide and failed to uphold Balfour’s promise.
• With Nazi persecution of Jews in Germany after 1933, a surge of Jewish refugees arrived in Palestine, making Jews about half the population by 1940.
• From 1936 onwards, Arabs protested violently, leading to a brutal British crackdown that resulted in over 3,000 Arab deaths.
• In 1937, the British Peel Commission suggested dividing Palestine into separate Arab and Jewish states, but the Arabs rejected this proposal. In 1939, the British offered an independent Arab state within ten years and limited Jewish immigration to 10,000 per year, which the Jews also rejected.
• The Second World War exacerbated the situation with a flood of Jewish refugees from Nazi-occupied Europe seeking refuge. In 1945, the USA pressured Britain to allow 100,000 Jews into Palestine. Despite Jewish leaders like David Ben Gurion supporting this, the British refused to avoid offending the Arabs.
• Determined to fight for their 'national home,' the Jews launched a campaign of violence against both Arabs and the British. Notable incidents included the bombing of the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, killing 91 people. The British responded by arresting Jewish leaders and turning back ships like the Exodus filled with Jews trying to enter Palestine.
• Weakened by World War II, the British felt unable to manage the situation. Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin requested the United Nations to address the issue. In November 1947, the UN voted to partition Palestine, allocating roughly half for a Jewish state. Early in 1948, the British decided to withdraw entirely and allow the UN plan to proceed.
• As fighting erupted between Jews and Arabs, with the latter opposing the loss of half of Palestine, the British withdrew their troops. In May 1948, Ben Gurion proclaimed the independence of Israel, which was immediately attacked by Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Iraq, and Lebanon.

Who Was to Blame for the Tragedy?

• Many in the world blamed Britain for the turmoil in Palestine. Even British newspapers that supported the Conservative Party criticized Bevin and the Labour government for their handling of the situation. It was suggested that British troops should have remained to ensure a smooth partition of Palestine.
• The Arabs accused the British of being pro-Jewish, allowing too many Jews into Palestine, and causing them to lose half their homeland. Conversely, the Jews accused the British of being pro-Arab by attempting to limit Jewish immigration.
• Bevin held the USA responsible for the chaos. There is evidence to support his view. It was President Truman who pressured Britain to admit 100,000 extra Jews into Palestine in April 1946. Despite exacerbating Arab anger, Truman refused to send American troops to maintain order in Palestine, barred further Jewish immigration to the USA, and rejected the British Morrison Plan (July 1946), which aimed to establish separate Arab and Jewish provinces under British supervision. The Americans also pushed for partition at the UN, despite opposition from all Arab nations, which further inflamed violence in Palestine.
• Some historians defend the British, arguing that they tried to be fair to both sides and that persuading both Arabs and Jews to accept a peaceful solution was impossible. The British withdrawal was seen as a way to force the Americans and the UN to take responsibility for the situation they had helped create and to spare the British further financial burden after spending over £100 million since 1945 trying to maintain peace.

The War and Its Outcome:

• Initially, many expected the Arabs to win easily, but against the odds, the Israelis defeated them and captured more territory than the UN partition had allocated. They ended up with about three-quarters of Palestine, including the Egyptian port of Eilat on the Red Sea.
• The Israelis triumphed because they fought fiercely, with many having military experience from serving in the British army during World War II. The Arab states were divided, poorly equipped, and the Palestinians were demoralized, their military organization having been dismantled by the British during the 1936-1939 uprisings.
• The most tragic outcome was the displacement of Palestinian Arabs, who lost three-quarters of their homeland. The majority became stateless, with some in the new Israeli state and others in the West Bank, which was occupied by Jordan. Nearly a million fled to Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, and Syria, living in dire refugee camps. Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan.
• The USA, Britain, and France guaranteed Israel’s borders, but the Arab states did not view the ceasefire as permanent. They refused to recognize Israel’s legitimacy, seeing this war as just the beginning of their struggle to destroy Israel and reclaim Palestine.

The Six-Day War of 1967

Background:

• After the 1948-49 war, Arab states did not sign a peace treaty and refused to recognize Israel.
• In 1967, Iraq, Syria, and Egypt led a coalition of Arab states aiming to destroy Israel.

Prelude to War:

• Iraq: A Ba’ath-influenced government came to power in 1963, aiming for Arab unity and social reform. President Aref declared the goal was to eliminate Israel.
• Syria: The Ba’ath Party seized power in 1966 and supported the Palestinian Liberation Movement, Fatah. Syria bombarded Jewish settlements from the Golan Heights.
• Egypt: President Nasser, popular for his leadership and socialist reforms, moved troops to the Sinai frontier and closed the Gulf of Aqaba, planning an attack on Israel.
• The Soviet Union supported Egypt and Syria with propaganda and hinted at military aid.

The War:

• With Arab forces massing, Israel decided to strike first, launching air strikes on June 5, destroying much of the Egyptian air force.
• Israeli troops rapidly captured the Gaza Strip, Sinai, West Bank, Jerusalem, and Golan Heights.
• The war ended on June 10 with a UN ceasefire, concluding in less than a week.

Reasons for Israeli Success:

• Arab troop buildup was slow, giving Israel time to prepare.
• Israeli air superiority played a crucial role.
• Poor Arab communication and preparation contributed to their defeat.

Results of the War:

• Israel ignored a UN order to return captured territories, establishing buffer zones that enhanced its security.
• Israel faced the challenge of governing about a million new Arab residents, many living in refugee camps.
• The defeat was a humiliation for Arab states, particularly for Nasser, who realized that the Arabs needed external support to challenge Israel.
• The Soviet Union, aiming to regain influence, began supplying modern weapons to Egypt and Syria.
• The Arab states were determined to try again to liberate Palestine, with the next major attempt occurring in the 1973 Yom Kippur War.

Yom Kippur War of 1973

Background to the War:

• The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), led by Yasser Arafat, pressured Arab states for action against Israel. When little happened, more extreme factions within the PLO resorted to terrorist attacks to draw attention to Palestinian grievances.
• King Hussein of Jordan, embarrassed by PLO terrorism, expelled PLO members from Jordan in 1970.
• Extreme acts of violence, including the murder of Israeli athletes at the 1972 Munich Olympics, escalated tensions.
• President Anwar Sadat of Egypt, succeeding Nasser in 1970, believed in the necessity of a peace settlement with Israel. He feared that PLO terrorism might alienate global sympathy for the Palestinian cause.
• Sadat aimed to gain American support for Arab interests, hoping the U.S. would persuade Israel to negotiate. However, the U.S. remained uninvolved.
• In collaboration with Syria, Sadat decided to attack Israel, believing that a military confrontation would compel American mediation.
• Egyptian confidence surged due to modern Russian weaponry and training received from Russian military experts.

Outbreak of the War:

• The war commenced on October 6, 1973, with Egyptian and Syrian forces launching a surprise attack during Yom Kippur, a significant Jewish holiday.
• Initial Arab successes were met with Israeli resistance, primarily using American-supplied weapons.
• Despite early gains, Israel managed to retain all territories captured in 1967 and even advanced into Egypt across the Suez Canal.
• In a way, Sadat’s strategy succeeded, as both the U.S. and the USSR recognized the need to mediate for a peace settlement.
• With UN cooperation, a ceasefire was established, accepted by both sides.

Aftermath of the War:

• The war’s conclusion sparked hope for a lasting peace. Egyptian and Israeli leaders met in Geneva (though not in the same room) to discuss terms.
• Israel agreed to withdraw troops from the Suez Canal, which had been closed since the 1967 war, facilitating its reopening by Egypt in 1975 (though not for Israeli vessels).
• Arab oil-producing nations sought to pressure the U.S. and Western Europe, allies of Israel, by reducing oil supplies, leading to significant shortages, particularly in Europe.
• Simultaneously, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) raised oil prices, contributing to global inflation and an energy crisis in industrialized nations.

Camp David Accords and Egyptian-Israeli Peace (1978-1979)

Initiation of Talks:

• President Sadat recognized that Egypt could not defeat Israel through military means and that continued conflict was a waste of resources.
• Despite the risks, Sadat took the bold step of engaging with Israel, acknowledging its legitimacy as a state.
• The Israeli government was facing economic challenges due to high defense spending and a global recession, and there was pressure from the United States to seek peace with Arab states.
• Sadat’s willingness to negotiate led to his visit to Israel in November 1977, followed by Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin visiting Egypt in December.
• U.S. President Jimmy Carter played a crucial role in facilitating formal negotiations between Egypt and Israel, which began in September 1978 at Camp David.

The Peace Treaty and Its Consequences:

• Under Carter’s mediation, the negotiations culminated in a peace treaty signed in Washington in March 1979.
• The key agreements included:
• Ending the state of war between Egypt and Israel that had persisted since 1948.
• Israel committing to withdraw its troops from the Sinai Peninsula.
• Egypt promising not to attack Israel and guaranteeing oil supplies from newly opened wells in southern Sinai.
• Allowing Israeli ships to use the Suez Canal.

Reactions and Challenges:

• The treaty faced condemnation from the PLO and most Arab states, except Sudan and Morocco.
• There was a long road ahead before Israel could establish similar peace treaties with Syria and Jordan.
• World opinion began to shift against Israel, recognizing the PLO’s position.
• When the U.S. attempted to bring the PLO and Israel together for an international conference, Israel refused to cooperate.
• In November 1980, Begin declared that Israel would never return the Golan Heights to Syria or allow the West Bank to become an independent Palestinian state, viewing such a scenario as a threat to its existence.
• Resentment grew among West Bank Arabs regarding Israeli settlement policies on Arab-owned land.
• Concerns arose about the potential for renewed violence unless the Israeli government adopted a more moderate stance.

Continued Tensions and the Intifada:

• Despite the initial peace, Sadat faced threats after signing the treaty. He was assassinated in October 1981 by extremist Muslim soldiers who believed he had betrayed the Arab and Muslim causes.
• His successor, Hosni Mubarak, upheld the Camp David agreement, demonstrating commitment to peace.
• Throughout the 1980s, the Iran-Iraq War dominated Arab attention, overshadowing Arab-Israeli tensions.
• However, in December 1987, Palestinians in Gaza and the West Bank initiated widespread protests known as the intifada, involving strikes, tax nonpayment, and a boycott of Israeli products.
• The Israeli crackdown failed to suppress the intifada, which lasted over three years and drew international condemnation for Israeli actions.

Peace Between Israel and the PLO

The election of a less aggressive government (Labour) in Israel in June 1992 raised hopes for better relations with the Palestinians. Prime Minister Yitzak Rabin and Foreign Minister Shimon Peres both believed in negotiation and were prepared to make concessions in order to achieve a lasting peace. Yasser Arafat, the PLO leader, responded, and talks opened.

The Peace Accord of September 1993:

This marked the first significant breakthrough during a conference in Oslo, becoming known as the Oslo Accords. The key agreements included:

• Israel officially recognizing the PLO.
• The PLO acknowledging Israel’s right to exist and committing to renounce terrorism.
• Palestinians being granted limited self-rule in Jericho (in the West Bank) and parts of the Gaza Strip, areas occupied by Israel since the 1967 war, with Israeli troops withdrawing from these regions.

Despite opposition from extremist groups on both sides—the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, which sought a fully independent Palestinian state, and Israeli settlers on the West Bank, who opposed any concessions to the PLO—the moderate leaders from both sides exhibited remarkable courage and determination. Notable figures such as Yossi Beilin, the Israeli deputy foreign minister, and Mahmoud Abbas (also known as Abu Mazen), one of Arafat’s advisers, played crucial roles. In the following years, they took even more significant steps forward, building upon the foundation laid by the Oslo Accords.