Cultural Foundations of Early India: Languages and Texts | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Development of Sanskrit Language

• Sanskrit is considered the most ancient language of India and is believed to be a distant cousin of many European languages. This relationship is evident in similarities such as the words pitr(“father”) and matr(“mother”). The earliest form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, as seen in the Rig Veda, which shares similarities with Indo-European languages.
• Over time, Sanskrit evolved significantly after the composition of the Rig Veda. Old words were forgotten or lost their original meanings, and new words, mainly borrowed from non-Aryan sources, were introduced. To preserve the purity of the Vedas, ancient India developed the science of phonetics and grammar.
• The oldest Indian linguistic text,Yaska’s Nirukta, which explains obsolete Vedic words, dates back to the 5th century B.C. The development of Sanskrit grammar began with Panini around 400 B.C. His book,Ashtadhyayi, is the oldest work on Sanskrit grammar and gave a new direction to the language.
• With Panini, Sanskrit reached its classical form, with little change except in vocabulary. His grammar stabilized the language and built upon the work of earlier grammarians. Panini’s system, though concise, is challenging to understand without prior study and commentary. Later grammarians primarily wrote commentaries on Panini, such as the Mahabhasya by Patanjali and the Kasika Vrtti by Jayaditya.
• From Panini’s time, Sanskrit was considered “perfected” or “refined.” The first significant dynasty to use Sanskrit was the Sakas of Ujjain. In inscriptions, it is first seen in the Junagarh Rock inscription of Rudradamana. In literature,Ashwaghosha is believed to be the first Sanskrit dramatist.
• During the Gupta period, Sanskrit developed into a more refined form, reaching its pinnacle in terms of purity and poetic style. The Gupta period saw the evolution of ornate style, exemplified in the works of Kalidasa. This form of Sanskrit was used not only in literature but also in coins and inscriptions.
• The Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, and Dharmasutras were all written in Sanskrit. Buddhist Sanskrit literature includes works from both the Mahayana and Hinayana schools. The most important work of the Hinayana school is the Mahavastu, while the Lalitavistara is a significant Mahayana text.

Sanskrit literature developed in phases:

• First Phase: Begins with Vedic literature, including the Vedas, Upanishads, Brahmanas, and Aranyakas.
• Second Phase: Ranging from 600 B.C. to 200 B.C., this period is known as the Sutra period.
• Third Phase: From 200 B.C. to 300 A.D., this period is associated with literary works in chaste Sanskrit, with Ashwaghosha being one of the earliest authors.
• Gupta Period: The zenith of Sanskrit literature, characterized by the creation of pure literature, including epics (Mahakavya) and semi-epics (Khandakavyas). The period is marked by a variation in literary works and the development of dramas and plays, primarily comedies written in verse.

Notable authors from this period include Kalidasa,Shudraka, and Vishakhadata.
Sanskrit is unique in its ability to transcend regional and boundary barriers, influencing and being influenced by various parts of India.

Development of the Prakrit Language

• During the Vedic period, the common Aryan tribesman spoke a language that was simpler and more closely related to classical Sanskrit. However, by the time of the Buddha, the masses were speaking languages that were considerably simpler than Sanskrit. These languages were known as Prakrits, which had several dialects. Prakrit was associated with the common people and was much simpler than Sanskrit in terms of sound and grammar.
• It's important to note that there is no single "Prakrit language." The term refers to various languages in India that have a complex relationship with Sanskrit. The everyday speech of ancient India has been preserved largely through unorthodox religions, whose earliest scriptures were composed in languages that closely resembled those spoken by the people.
• The period of literary development spanned from 500 BC to 800 AD. Most inscriptions from pre-Guptan times, particularly the series of Ashokan edicts, were written in Prakrit. Additionally, in Sanskrit dramas, women and lower-class characters were often depicted speaking in Prakrit.
• Prakrit literature was primarily developed by the Jainas. The Maharashtrian branch of Prakrit, spoken in the north-western Deccan, was used and developed by the Swetambaras. The Digambaras, on the other hand, developed the Shourseni branch of Prakrit, which was spoken in the Mathura region. An important stage in the development of the Prakrit language was the emergence of Paishachi, and the last stage was the development of Apbhramsha.

Some notable literary works in Prakrit include the Gathasaptasati by Hala and the Parishishtparvan by Hemachandra. The grammar of Prakrit was also developed, with significant works such as the Prakrit Prakasha by Vasaruchi and the Prakrit Lakshana by Chandra. Secular texts written in Prakrit often exhibit ethical themes and moralistic idealism, as seen in works like the Setubandha by Pravarsena and the Gaudvaho by Vakapati.

Development of the Pali Language

• One significant early form of Prakrit was Pali, which became the language of the Theravadin Buddhists. Pali was accepted as the formal language within the Theravadin sect and was given literary expression. It developed primarily through religious texts of Buddhism, with the Tripitakas being the most important.
• Buddha taught in Magadhi, which was also the official language of the Mauryan court. Some scholars believe that Magadhi Prakrit is an early form of Pali. The Theravada commentaries refer to the Pali language as “Magadhan” or the “language of Magadha,” indicating its association with the common people. The development of Pali literature began around 500 BC and continued until 700 to 800 AD.
• An important work of Pali literature is the Milindpanho, composed between 200 BC and 300 AD. This work is notable for its high literary quality and is presented in the form of a conversation. The poetic form of the Pali language developed and became more significant than its prose version. In later periods, the grammar of the Pali language also saw some development.

Notes

• Later, a hybrid form of Magadhi, influenced by the Western Prakrits and usually known as Ardha-magadhi(“Half-Magadhi”), became the sacred language of the Jains, with a large body of literature written in it.
• Apabhramsa(“falling away”), a vernacular of Western India, achieved literary form in the middle ages and was used by Jaina writers in Gujarat and Rajasthan for poetry composition.
• A similar degenerate form of Prakrit was used in Bengali by some late Buddhist poets and is considered the ancestor of modern Bengali.

Development of the Dravidian Language

The Dravidian languages had been thriving for centuries, with four of these languages—Tamil, Canarese, Telugu, and Malayalam—having distinctive scripts and written literatures. These languages are spoken in different regions of southern India:

• Tamil is spoken in the south, from Cape Comorin to Madras.
• Canarese is spoken in Mysore and parts of Andhra Pradesh.
• Telugu is spoken from Madras northwards to the borders of Orissa.
• Malayalam is spoken in Kerala.

Tamil is considered the oldest of these languages, with a literature that dates back to the early centuries A.D. Some authorities suggest that the Dravidian languages may be remotely affiliated with the Finno-Ugrian group, which includes Finnish and Hungarian. However, this hypothesis is uncertain and raises intriguing questions about prehistoric race movements.

• Dravidian is virtually an independent group of languages with its distinctive character. The varied vowels in Dravidian languages set them apart from the northern languages. Sanskrit began to influence Dravidian languages early on, and by the Middle Ages, learned speakers regarded their suffixes as nominal and verbal endings, similar to Sanskrit. In the oldest texts, these suffixes are used sparingly.
• The earliest Tamil literature contains relatively few Sanskrit loanwords, and those that do appear are generally adapted to the Tamil phonetic system. Over time, the increasing influence of Aryan culture led to the borrowing of many more words, especially during the Middle Ages, often in their correct Sanskrit form.

Telugu and Canarese, spoken further north, are even more strongly influenced by Sanskrit. Canarese first appears in inscriptions at the end of the 6th century, with its earliest surviving literature dating back to the 9th century. Telugu did not become a literary language until the 12th century and gained prominence under the Vijayanagara Empire, where it served as the court language. Malayalam, closely related to Tamil, emerged as a separate language by the 11th century.

Brahmanical Texts

Shruti

• Shruti, meaning "that which is heard," refers to the most authoritative and ancient religious texts in Hinduism, believed to be revealed by God to the sages.
• The four Vedas and their embedded texts, such as the Samhitas, early Upanishads, Brahmanas, and Aranyakas, are included in Shruti. These texts are considered apauruṣeya, or not created by humans.

Smriti

• Smriti, meaning "that which is remembered," encompasses Hindu texts attributed to specific authors and written down, in contrast to Shruti, which is considered authorless and transmitted verbally.
• Smriti literature is vast and includes texts rooted in or inspired by Shruti. It comprises the six Vedangas, Upavedas, Itihasa (epics), texts on the four proper goals of human life (dharma, artha, kama, moksha), Puranas, Kavya literature, Bhasyas, sutras, shastras, and Nibandhas.

The Shruti Literature (or The Vedic Texts)

What is Veda?

• The term "Veda" comes from the root "vid," meaning "to know." It signifies the sacred knowledge contained in the texts known as Vedic texts.
• The Vedas are the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism. They are also called sruti literature, distinguishing them from other religious texts known as smṛti.
• Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruseya, meaning impersonal and authorless. The Vedas are believed to be revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation.
• According to the Hindu Epic Mahabharata, the creation of the Vedas is credited to Brahma. The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were skillfully created by Rishis (sages) after inspired creativity, similar to how a carpenter builds a chariot.

There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, and the Atharvaveda. Each Veda is sub-classified into four major text types:

The Four Vedas

1. Samhitas

• Rigveda Samhita: A collection of 1,028 hymns divided into 10 mandalas, depicting the life of early Vedic people in India.
• Samaveda Samhita: A collection of verses mostly taken from the Rigveda but arranged in poetic form for singing, representing prayers set to tune.
• Yajurveda Samhita: Contains hymns and rituals accompanying their recitation, reflecting the social and political milieu of the time.
• Atharvaveda Samhita: A collection of hymns related to worldly affairs, including magical spells and charms, shedding light on non-Aryan beliefs and practices.

2. Brahmanas

• Prose commentaries on Samhitas, providing details and explanations of sacrificial rituals and their outcomes.

3. Aranyakas

• Texts on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices, and symbolic sacrifices, composed in forest jungles.
• They interpret sacrificial rituals philosophically and represent a spiritual explanation of sacrifice.

4. Upanishads

• Texts discussing meditation, philosophy, and spiritual knowledge. The term "Upanishad" means "sitting down near," reflecting the tradition of pupils learning from their Guru.
• The Upanishads, considered the culmination of Indian thought, deal with abstract philosophical problems and are often referred to as Vedanta, meaning "the last parts of the Vedas."
• The concepts of Brahman (Ultimate Reality) and Atman (Soul, Self) are central to all Upanishads, which form the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.
• Examples of important Upanishads include the Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Aitareya, Kena, and Katha Upanishads.
• There are over 200 known Upanishads, with the Muktika listing 108 Upanishads. Only the early Upanishads are considered Sruti literature, while the rest fall under Smriti literature.
• Aranyakas are sometimes identified as karma-kanda (ritualistic section), whereas Upanishads are known as jnana-kanda (spirituality section).

Shruti Literature as a Historical Source

• It serves as a primary source for understanding Vedic life and culture between 1500 BC and 600 BC, shedding light on the social, economic, political, and religious aspects of the Vedic period.
• It is a crucial source of Brahmanical tradition, reflecting their religious beliefs, practices, and perspectives.
• It provides geographical information about North and North-West India, including names of rivers and mountains.

Limitations

• Religious Literature: Religious ideas often overshadow historical facts, and references to historical events are rare, such as the battle of 19 kings.
• Extra-worldly References: Many references within religions are extra-worldly.
• Correlation Issues: There is a lack of adequate archaeological evidence to support the literary sources, making correlation problematic.
• Vagueness and Ambiguity: The exact meanings of words are often unclear.
• Dating and Authorship Problems: There are significant issues regarding dating, chronology, and authorship, with suggested dates ranging from 6000 BC to 1000 BC.
• Regional Limitation: The historical usefulness is confined mainly to the northwestern part of India.

Various Smriti Literatures

• The Vedangas, or limbs of the Vedas, consist of six classes of sutras that are essential for reading, understanding, and applying the Vedas.
• These are not books but subjects that aid in the interpretation and application of Vedic texts.

Shiksha: This Vedanga focuses on the pronunciation of Vedic Mantras (phonetics).
Nirukta: Nirukta deals with etymology, which involves the origin and formation of Vedic words.
Chhanda: Chhanda is concerned with the metrical formation of Vedic Mantras, specifically the arrangement of words in verses.
Vyakarana: Vyakarana pertains to grammar.
Jyotisha: Jyotisha involves astrology.
Kalpasutras

• Kalpasutras are ceremonial guides or didactic manuals on ritual practice.
• They can be broadly divided into four sub-divisions.

Shrautasutras: These incorporate rituals derived from Shrutis (the Vedas, Brahmanas, etc.) and often involve public ceremonies such as the Rajasuya and Ashvamedha.
Grihyasutras: Grihyasutras provide detailed prescriptions for domestic rituals, especially Samskaras (sacraments) related to significant life events such as birth, marriage, and death.
Shulbasutras: Shulbasutras, closely related to Shrautasutras, lay down norms and methods for the measurement and construction of sacrificial altars.
Dharmasutras: Dharmasutras prescribe norms for daily conduct and the consequences of violations.
Dharmasutras are considered the earliest law books from ancient times, written between 600-300 B.C.

Various Dharmasutras

• Gautama Dharmasutras: Recognized as the oldest, this text comprises about one-fourth of the total sutras on Rajdharma.
• Apastamba Dharmasutras: The second oldest, this text includes one-tenth of the total sutras on Rajdharma and features a commentary by Hardatta known as Vijjvalavrtti.
• Baudhyana Dharmasutras: Chronologically later than Apastamba, this text contains one-eighth of the total sutras on Rajdharma.
• Vasistha Dharmasutras: About one-sixth of this text is dedicated to Rajdharma.
• Vishnu Dharmasutras: Claimed to be a revelation by the Supreme Being, this text is attributed to sages, with a commentary by Bharuchi.

Notes: Sutras are written in a condensed style, expressing ideas in very short statements.

Upaveda

• Upaveda, meaning applied knowledge, comprises traditional literatures containing subjects of technical works.
• The Upavedas include:
  Āyurveda: Associated with the Rigveda, this Upaveda deals with medicine.
  Dhanurveda: Linked to the Yajurveda, this Upaveda focuses on archery.
  Gāndharvaveda: Related to the Samaveda, this Upaveda covers music and dance.
  Shastrashastra: Associated with the Atharvaveda, this Upaveda pertains to military technology.

Dharmashastras

• Dharmashastras are a genre of Sanskrit theological texts concerning Hinduism's treatises on dharma.
• There are numerous Dharmashastras, estimated between 18 to 100, with varying and conflicting viewpoints.
• Each text exists in multiple versions and is rooted in Dharmasutra texts dated to the 1st millennium BCE, emerging from Kalpa (Vedanga) studies during the Vedic era.
• The texts address topics such as:
• ashrama: stages of life,
• varna: social classes,
• purushartha: proper goals of life,
• personal virtues and duties like ahimsa(non-violence), rules of just war,
• duties and rites of kings,
• rights of slaves and their duties,
• property rights,
• laws related to marriage and inheritance, and
• jatis and their duties.

Important Dharmashastras

Theme (Subject Matter) of Puranas

The Puranas have five core subjects:

• Sarga: The original creation of the universe.
• Pratisarga: The periodic process of destruction and re-creation.
• Manvantara: The different eras or cosmic cycles.
• Surya Vamsha and Chandra Vamsa: The histories of the solar and lunar dynasties of gods and sages.
• Vamshanucharita: The genealogies of kings.

Cosmic Cycles

• The Puranas describe four ages or yugas: Krita, Treta, Dwapar, and Kaliyug.
• Each successive age represents a phase of deterioration and degeneration, particularly in moral aspects.
• This cycle of time is connected with the cyclical decline and revival of dharma.

Dynastic Histories

• The Puranas provide genealogies of various dynasties, including Haryanka, Nanda, Maurya, Shunga, Satavahana, and end with the Guptas.
• This suggests that most Puranas were compiled during the Gupta period.

Additional Materials

• Around the core subjects, Puranas add diverse materials such as:
• Social traditions and customs
• Social ceremonies and sacrifices
• Festivals
• Duties of various castes
• Different types of donations
• Emergence of religious cults based on devotion to deities like Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti.

Reflections of Culture

• The Puranas reflect the interaction of Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical cultural traditions and the development of Hindu religious practices.
• They include details about temple construction, images, places of pilgrimage, mantras, the priestly class, folk traditions (e.g., tree worship), astronomy, medicine, cosmology, rules, and laws.
• One Purana, the Vayu Purana, even attempts geography and music.

The Puranas played a significant role in spreading both religious and secular ideas in ancient times and were a meeting point of diverse religious and social beliefs. They are linked with the vital spiritual and social needs of the people and represent an ongoing synthesis between various groups of Vedic Aryans and non-Aryans.

Problems with Puranas as Historical Sources

• The Puranas differ from history in that history follows a specific method and relies on evidence, while Puranas do not. This makes it impossible to dispute what Puranas claim.
• Puranas combine legends related to gods, demons, and life after death, which disqualifies them from serious philosophical study.
• Despite their focus on theological issues, Puranas include various aspects of life and thus hold an important position in scholarly discourse.

Itihasas (Also called Epics)

Purpose and Themes

• The epics aim to convey the laws of the smritis (traditional texts) and the principles of the sruti (Vedic texts) through the exploits of national heroes like Rama and Krishna.
• The Ramayana narrates the deeds of a divinely great hero, exemplifying ideal human qualities such as brotherhood, moral obedience, character strength, honesty, sacrifice, and goodness.
• It presents a vision of an ideal society and upholds the principles of Sanatana Dharma, particularly the duties of rulers.

Maha Bharata

• The Mahabharata encompasses a broader theme involving history, mythology, ethics, and metaphysics.
• Originally written in Sanskrit with 8,800 verses and called "Jaya," it was later expanded to 24,000 verses as "Bharata," and finally to 100,000 verses as the "Mahabharata" or "Satasahasri Samhita."
• The epic primarily narrates the conflict between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, containing narrative, descriptive, and didactic material.
• It includes the Bhagavad Gita, a central text of divine wisdom with universal relevance, whose teachings remain applicable even today.

Origins and Composition

• The epics differ from early Vedic literature as they emerged not among the priestly classes but among traditional bards called sutas.
• These bards, often serving as charioteers, witnessed battles firsthand and recounted them in ballads.
• The epics are martial poetry, focusing on kings and nobles, wars, and practical purposes rather than deities or sacrifices.
• They have been altered over time, with additions from various hands at different periods, including ancient bardic poetry, sacred poetry, and sections on philosophy, ethics, cosmologies, and genealogies.
• This reflects the enduring popularity and the effort to compile a comprehensive narrative.

Doctrine of Avatar

• A distinctive feature of the Itihasa-Purana tradition is the fully developed doctrine of avatar(divine incarnation).
• Avatars are believed to protect the virtuous, destroy the wicked, and establish dharma (moral order).

Buddhist Literature

Buddhist literature is primarily written in Pali, the language spoken in Magadha and South Bihar. It is divided into canonical and non-canonical texts.

Canonical Literature

The canonical literature is exemplified by the Tripitaka, or "Three Baskets," which consists of the Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka, all written in Pali.
Vinaya Pitaka: This section outlines the rules and regulations governing the daily life of monks and nuns.
Sutta Pitaka: The largest and most important of the three pitakas, it contains the teachings of the Buddha. It is divided into five groups (Nikayas):

• Digha Nikaya: Long sermons attributed to the Buddha, along with details about the circumstances of their delivery.
• Majjhima Nikaya: Contains shorter sermons.
• Samyutta Nikaya: Collections of brief pronouncements by the Buddha.
• Anguttara Nikaya: Over 2,000 brief statements arranged in eleven sections.
• Khuddaka Nikaya: Miscellaneous works in prose and verse, including the Dhammapada (verses on virtue), Theragatha (hymns of elder monks), Therigatha (hymns of elder nuns), and Jatakas (stories of the Buddha's previous births).

Abhidhamma Pitaka: This section addresses philosophy and metaphysics, covering topics such as ethics, psychology, theories of knowledge, and metaphysical issues.

Mahayana Sutras
The Mahayana sutras are a collection of Buddhist scriptures accepted as canonical by various Mahayana traditions. They are primarily preserved in the Chinese and Tibetan Buddhist canons, as well as in existing Sanskrit manuscripts. Mahayana Buddhists believe these sutras were taught by Gautama Buddha, memorized, and recited by his disciples.

Non-canonical Literature

The non-canonical literature is exemplified by the Jatakas, which narrate the previous births of the Buddha. These stories provide valuable insights into the social and economic conditions from the sixth century BC to the second century BC and make references to political events during the Buddha's time.

• Milind Panho: A dialogue between the Indo-Greek king Menander and the Buddhist monk Nagasen discussing philosophical issues, written in Pali during the post-Mauryan period.
• Niti Gandha: A Pali text recounting the teachings of Buddha.
• Atthakatha: Commentaries on the Tripitaka written by Buddhaghosh in the 5th century AD.
• Dipvamsa and Mahavamsa: Historical and mythical accounts of the Buddha's life and descriptions of Buddhist councils, written in Pali in Sri Lanka during the 4th-5th century AD. The Mahavamsa also references Ashoka.
• Mahavastu: A sacred biography of the Buddha detailing the rise of monastic orders (Sangha), written in a mixture of Sanskrit and Prakrit.
• Lalitvistar: Another biography of the Buddha, also written in mixed Sanskrit and Prakrit.
• Buddhacharita: Written by Ashwaghosha in Sanskrit, it primarily focuses on the life of the Buddha.
• Avadana Literature: This type of literature correlates virtuous deeds from past lives with events in subsequent lives, illustrating the workings of karma. It includes around 600 stories in Pali and numerous Sanskrit collections, such as the Mahavastu and Avadanasataka.

Jaina Literature

Jaina texts, written in Prakrit, were compiled in the sixth century AD in Valabhi, Gujarat. Initially, only canonical literature was produced, with non-canonical literature developing later in medieval times.

Agamas

Agamas refer to Jaina canonical literature, which includes:

• 14 Purvas: Old Jain scriptures preached by all Tirthankaras, encompassing a vast body of knowledge. The Svetambara and Digambara traditions believe these texts are lost.
• 12 Angas: Most important texts dealing with Jaina doctrine, rules of conduct, and the life of Mahavira.
• 12 Upangas: Associated with each Anga, covering topics such as creation, the universe, and periodization.
• 10 Prakirnas: Doctrinal matters in verse form, supplements to Angas and Upangas.
• 6 Chedasutras: Rules for monks and nuns, analogous to the Vinaya Pitaka in Buddhism.
• 4 Malasutras: Sermons, life in the Sangha, and duties of monks.
• Niryuktis: Commentaries on Angas prepared around 100 AD.
• Kalpasutra: History of Jainism from its inception, written by Bhadrabahu.
• Acharang Sutras: Oldest Jaina text containing monastic rules.

Notable Jain scholars include Haribhadra Suri (8th century AD) and Hemchandra Suri (12th century AD). Jainism contributed to a rich literary tradition encompassing poetry, philosophy, and grammar, with texts aiding in the reconstruction of political history in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Jain texts frequently reference trade and traders.

Sangam Literature

• Sangam literature is a vast collection of ancient Tamil literature produced in South India during the Sangam Age, which lasted from approximately 400-300 BC to 300-400 AD. This literature, while secular in nature, offers valuable insights into various aspects of religious life.
• Initially written in the Brahmi script and later in the Grantha script, Sangam literature is a product of three assemblies (sangams) of poets and litterateurs under the patronage of the Pandyan kings.
• The works of the First Sangam have unfortunately been lost to history. The Second Sangam is renowned for producing the foundational work on Tamil grammar, known as Tolkappiyam, authored by Tolkappiyar.

The Third Sangam was responsible for the creation of:

• Patthu Patu(Ten Idylls)
• Ettuthokai(Eight Collections)
• 19 minor didactic poems, with the most famous being the Tirukkural, written by Tiruvalluvar.
• 10 epics, among which the Silapaddikaram and Manimekalai are the most significant.

Sangam literature primarily consists of poems that fall into two broad categories: Agam(Love) and Puram(War and Praise of Kings). The Agam literature is further divided based on regions, including:

• Kurinchi– Hills
• Palai– Dry Land
• Mullai– Forest Land
• Marutham– Cultivated Land
• Neithal– Coastal Region

Sangam literature provides a rich tapestry of information about the social, economic, religious, and political life of the time. It offers glimpses into the lives of both the ruling classes and common people, shedding light on dynastic histories, the exploits of kings, wars, social classes, economic pursuits, and religious practices and beliefs.

Sanskrit Drama and Plays

Sanskrit drama and plays have a rich tradition in ancient India, with notable figures contributing to the development of this literary form.

Rig Veda and Natyashastra

• The earliest elements of drama can be found in the Dialogue Hymns of the Rigveda. The Rigveda is one of the oldest texts in the world, dating back to around 1500 BCE.
• The Natyashastra, attributed to Bharata, is the earliest extant work on Sanskrit dramaturgy. It provides a comprehensive theory of drama and performance, covering various aspects such as acting, stagecraft, and the emotional impact of performance.

Asvaghosha

• Asvaghosha is credited with authorship of three Buddhist dramas in Sanskrit.
• One of these dramas, the Sariputra Prakarana, has been proven to be written by him, while the authorship of the other two remains uncertain.

Bhasha

• Bhasha, who lived in the 2nd or 3rd century AD, is believed to have written the largest number of plays in Sanskrit, predating Kalidasa.
• Kalidasa, a renowned poet and playwright, makes a reverential reference to Bhasha in his works.
• Bhasha is credited with writing at least 13 plays in Sanskrit, with some of his notable works including:
• Madhyama Vyayoga
• Pratima Natak
• Abhishek Natak (which draws themes from the Ramayana)
• Charudata (which shares a theme with the play Mrichchhakatika by Sudraka).
• Bhasha also made use of Prakrit in his plays.

Sudraka

• Sudraka is believed to have written the play Mrichchhakatika in Sanskrit.
• The play is based on the plot of Charudatta by Bhasha, but Sudraka combines the theme with political events, depicting Vasantsena as the lawful wife of Charudatta by the end of the play.
• The character of Vidusak, a comic figure, is also present in Sudraka's play.

Kalidasa

• Kalidasa is a celebrated figure in Sanskrit literature, living in the 4th century AD. He is regarded as one of the gems of Sanskrit literature.
• Kalidasa is believed to have been a Brahmin from Ujjain and a Shaivite.
• His first play, Malvikaagnimitra, is a comedy that revolves around the love story of Agnimitra and a maid.
• Another notable play is Vikramorvasiya, which tells a fairy tale of love between a celestial nymph and a mortal, incorporating elements from the Rigveda and the Satapatha Brahmana.
• Kalidasa's most important play, Abhijnana Shakuntala, is based on the story of Sakuntala from the Mahabharata. It revolves around the love story of Dushyanta and Sakuntala.
• In addition to his plays, Kalidasa wrote two Mahakavyas:
• Raghuvamsa, which is based on the Ramayana and some Puranas, describing the lineage of 30 kings from the solar race, including Raghu.
• Kumarsambhava, which narrates the story of the birth of Kumar, the son of Shiva and Parvati, who vanquished the demon Taraka.
• Kalidasa also composed lyrical poems such as Meghaduta and Ritusamhara.
• Meghaduta tells the story of a Yaksha separated from his beloved due to his master's curse, requesting clouds to carry his message from Ranagiri to Alaka.
• Ritusamhara describes the six seasons of the year.

Harsha

• Harsha is ascribed with the authorship of three plays:
• Ratnavali: Considered the most perfect play and the first work of Harsha, it is a closer imitation of Kalidasa's style.
• Priyadariska: Introduces the new device of Garbha-natak or drama within a drama, marking the first instance of this technique in Sanskrit plays. This device was later used by Bhavabhuti in Uttaramacharita and by Rajshekhar in Balramayan.
• Nagnanda: Depicts the story of Jimutavahana and carries a Buddhist tinge. It is considered Harsha's last work.

Bhavabhuti

• Bhavabhuti, who lived in the early 8th century AD, was born in Vidarbha and was a court poet of Yasovarman, the King of Kannauj, according to Rajatarangini.
• He is known for writing three plays:
• Mahavir Charita: This play describes the early life of Rama and is based on the Ramayana.
• Matti Madhav: This play narrates the love story between Malti and Madhav, concluding with a happy ending.
• Uttararamacharita: This play deals with the story of Uttarakand from the Ramayana.
• Among his three plays, Uttararamacharita is the last to be written. It is notable for its use of Garbha-Natak, a technique where a story is told within a story.
• Bhavabhuti is often considered to have surpassed Kalidasa in depicting sentiments, particularly Karuna, which refers to pathos or tenderness. Unlike Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti does not include a comic character Vidushak in his plays, thus negating the sentiment of Hasya or humor.
• The love themes in Bhavabhuti's plays are more spiritual than sensuous, contrasting with Kalidasa's approach.

Vishakhadutta

• Vishakhadutta, who lived in the 7th century AD, was the son of Maharaja Bhaskardatta or Minister Prithu. He is known for writing the Mudrarakshasa, a drama based on political and historical themes.
• This drama is unique as it does not feature a heroine and lacks the sentiment of Sringara or love. It describes the role of Chanakya in winning over Rakshasa, the minister of the Nandas.
• Vishakhadutta also wrote Devichandragupta, which narrates how Dhruvadevi was saved by Chandragupta II from the Sakas. Additionally, he wrote Abhisarikavanchitak or Bandhitaka, based on the legend of Udayana and Padmavati.

Rajshekhara

• Rajshekhara, the son of minister Darduka, belonged to the Yayavara family of Maharashtra in the 9th century AD.
• He was the guru of Mahendrapala, a Pratihara king.
• Rajshekhara composed four dramas:
• Balramayan: This play uses the technique of Garbha Natak and is a Rama play.
• Balbharata: This play was composed for king Mahipala of the Pratihara dynasty.
• Viddhasalabhanjika
• Karpuramanjari: This play was composed at the instance of Awantsundari, Rajshekhara's wife, who was an accomplished princess of the Chahamana family.

Kshemisvara

• Kshemisvara, also known as Kshemendra but not to be confused with the Kashmirian writer Kshemendra, wrote Chandakausika for king Mahipala of the Pratihara dynasty.
• He also composed Naishadhnand and some other plays. These works are significant contributions to the tradition of Sanskrit drama.

Other Plays

• Prasanna-raghav– by Jayadev
• Tapati Samvama– by Kulshekhar (King of Kerala)
• Karnasundari– by Bilhan(Court of Vikramaditya VI)
• Lalitavigraharajanatak– by Somdev for Chahamana king Visaldev

Katha or Story Literature

Panchtantra is the earliest collection of stories, compiled by Vishnu Sharma during the Gupta period. This collection was written to educate the foolish sons of King Amarkirti.

Hitopadesh, authored by Narayana, is the second most famous collection of Indian stories.

The Nature of Ancient Indian Historical Traditions

Evidence of an interest in preserving the memory of the past, or a historical tradition, can be found in ancient texts. Romila Thapar makes a distinction between 'embedded' and 'externalized' forms of history.

Embedded vs. Externalized History

• Embedded History: In this form, historical consciousness is contained within myths, epics, and genealogies.
• Externalized History: This form reflects a more evident and self-conscious historical awareness, as seen in chronicles and biographies.

Thapar notes that embedded forms are linked to lineage-based societies, while externalized forms are associated with state societies.

Later Vedic Texts and Historical Consciousness

Later Vedic texts exhibit a historical consciousness through various compositions related to the performance of sacrifices (yajnas).

• Dana-Stutis: These are hymns that praise the generosity and exploits of kings.
• Gathas: Songs in praise of kings, sung during specific sacrifices.
• Narashamsis: Used in rituals, preserved in texts like the Brahmanas and Grihyasutras.
• Akhyanas: Narrative hymns in dialogue form, referencing mythical and possibly historical events.

King-Lists in Puranas and Epics: These represent more substantial evidence of ancient Indian historical tradition. The epics, known as itihasa, are supposed to record actual events, though the accuracy of their descriptions is a separate issue.

Role of Bards in Historical Tradition

• Bards, such as sutas and magadhas, played a crucial role in maintaining historical traditions.
• Poets and bards from ancient Tamil land who praised their royal patrons also contributed to the creation and transmission of historical traditions.

Mythico-Historical Accounts

• Texts like the Buddhist Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, which provide mythico-historical accounts of Buddhism's journey to Sri Lanka, represent a form of historical tradition.
• Sacred biographies in the Buddhist, Jaina, and Hindu traditions also contribute to this historical narrative.

Royal Biographies and Inscriptions

• Despite their eulogistic nature, royal biographies reflect a historical tradition.
• Royal inscriptions often contain a prashasti, detailing the king's genealogy and exploits, primarily to laud him.

Royal Archives and Official Records

• The Arthashastra and the writings of the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang mention royal archives that preserved official records in every Indian city.
• Al-Biruni's 11th-century Tahqiq-i-Hind also refers to the archives of the Shahi kings of Kabul. However, no ancient archives from that time have survived.

Diverse Notions of History

• Ancient and early medieval Indian historical traditions, while varied, differ significantly from modern conceptions of history.
• Intellectuals in different eras and societies select and interpret past events based on their own criteria.
• Given the differences between ancient and modern societies, it is expected to find significant variations in their perspectives on the past.

Distinction between Myth and History

• Unlike modern historians, who differentiate between myth and history, ancient texts do not make such distinctions.
• The historical traditions of ancient India are intertwined with religious, ritualistic, and court contexts.
• In contrast, contemporary history is an academic discipline grounded in research and linked to modern institutions like universities and research institutes.
• The methods, techniques, and objectives of historical research today are markedly different from how the past was understood and represented in ancient texts.