Dalit Movements After 1947 (Post Independent India) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• The word "Dalit" refers to those who have been oppressed and crushed in India. It comes from the root "dal," which means "to break or crush." Jyotirao Phule, a social reformer, is believed to be the first to use this term in the 19th century to describe the suffering of untouchable castes. 
• Mahatma Gandhi later used the term "Harijan," meaning "Children of God," to refer to the former untouchables. 
• In the Indian Constitution, Dalits are classified as Scheduled Castes. Today, many Dalits prefer the term "Dalit" as a way to assert their identity and move away from derogatory caste names. 
• The contemporary understanding of "Dalit" emphasizes resilience and strength in the face of historical oppression. It has become a political identity representing the struggle and survival of these communities. 

Early Resistance to Untouchability:

• Dalits were the most exploited and oppressed group in India. 
• Despite being degraded as "untouchables" by Brahmanic forces, Dalits never accepted their position and began protesting against it early on. 
• Their initial response to untouchability was through the Bhakti Cult, which included saints like Ramanujacharya, Kabir, and Tukaram. 
• Untouchable saints like Ravidas and Chokhamela were also drawn to the Bhakti Cult. 

Emergence of Modern Dalit Movements:

• The modern Dalit movements originated in the 19th century when Dalits began to change their lives and aspirations were taken seriously. 
• Most background material for these movements was written by interested foreigners, not by Dalits themselves. 

Changing Terminology and Identity:

• The term "Dalit" was popularized to replace derogatory caste names and the term "Untouchable." It signifies strength in struggle and has become a political identity. 
• Dalit movements reflect a broader national and human consciousness of oppressed Indian people and a democratic awakening of lower castes. 
• These movements aim to achieve social, cultural, and economic mobility for groups that have lagged behind and challenge the dominance of other classes. 

Factors that led to the growth of Dalit consciousness 

• The Dalit Movement in India emerged as a response to centuries of hatred and oppression inflicted by the upper castes. 
• Dalits, assigned the lowest status in the caste system, were responsible for serving the other three Varnas (social groups) and were denied higher education, socio-economic status, and political power. 
• The division of labor among the castes was based on inequality and exploitation, leading to the deterioration of Dalit lives. 

Historical Context:

• For centuries, Dalits were excluded from mainstream society and restricted to menial jobs such as cleaning dry latrines and sweeping. 
• Unlike tribal communities, Dalits did not have the advantage of geographical isolation; they lived in Hindu villages but were pushed to the outskirts. 
• The interior of the villages was occupied by Brahmins, and Dalits were prohibited from entering these areas, forced to wear ragged clothes, and treated as "untouchables." 

Atrocities and Religious Justifications:

• Many atrocities against Dalits were committed in the name of religion. 
• For example, under the Devadasi system, a Dalit who overheard a sacred mantra was punished by having molten lead poured into their ears. 

Monopolization of Education and Untouchability:

• Education was monopolized by the upper castes to retain their control over society. 
• Untouchability was one of the most inhuman practices, forcing Dalits to live in extreme and degrading conditions. 

Rise of the Dalit Movement:

• The inhuman treatment and practices of Brahmanism spurred Dalits to rise and protest for their rights and equality. 
• The movement for Dalit rights began with a basic demand for equality

Historical Roots and Influences:

• The Dalit movement, which gained momentum after India’s independence, has its roots in ancient times, including the Vedic period, the Shramanic-Brahmanic confrontation, and the Bhakti Movement. 
• The introduction of Western education and the influence of Christian missionaries exposed Dalits to ideas of equality and liberty, sparking the modern Dalit Movement. 

Factors Contributing to the Movement:

• The combination of frustration and reason among educated Dalits led to a confrontation against Brahmanical atrocities. 
• New political and economic forces based on individual liberty, equity, and democratic principles began to permeate Indian society, including among Dalits. 
• Educated Dalits started to advocate for the poor and highlight the exploitation and humiliation faced by lower castes. 

Role of British Policy and Western Philosophy:

• The British policy of divide and rule, particularly through caste classification, played a significant role in the rise of Dalit consciousness. 
• Western philosophies emphasizing equality, such as "all men are created equal," inspired Dalit activism. 

Socio-Economic Changes and Constitutional Empowerment:

• Improvements in communication, education, and new administrative systems weakened the privileges of a few and opened up equal opportunities for all, particularly through industrialization. 
• The commercialization of agriculture, emergence of contractual relations, and new employment opportunities in factories and markets also contributed to the socio-economic upliftment of Dalits. 
• Constitutional provisions favoring Dalits empowered them and increased awareness of their rights. 

Influence of Social Reform Movements:

• Social reform movements, such as those led by Jyotiba Phule in Maharashtra and Sri Narayana Guru in Kerala, began to challenge the caste system and advocate for caste equality, further fueling the Dalit movement. 

Jyotirao Govindrao Phule (1827-1890)

First leader of Dalits. He occupies a unique position among the social reformers of Maharashtra in 19th century. 

• He concentrated his energies against the unjust caste system under which millions of people had suffered for many centuries. 
• He founded organisation (movement) called Satya Sodhak Samaj (society of seekers of truth) with himself as its president and treasurer. 
• The main objective of the organisation was to work of liberation of Sudras and to prevent their exploitation by the Brahmins. 

Narayan Guru

Early Life and Background:

• Born in Kerala into the Ezhava caste, which was considered untouchable. 

Establishment of SNDP:

• Founded the SNDP (Shree Narayan Dharma Paripalana Yogam) to promote social reform and welfare. 
• Expanded the organization both within Kerala and outside the state. 

Critique of Gandhi:

• Criticized Gandhi for his belief in Chaturvarna, which he believed contributed to the caste system and untouchability. 
• Argued that the differences between castes are only superficial.

Vision for Society:

• Advocated for the idea of "one religion, one caste, and one God for mankind."

Temple Construction:

• Built temples that were open to all castes, promoting inclusivity and equality. 

Rajrshi ChhatraPati Shahuji 

• The founder of reservations in India. 
• First to make provisions for reservations for Dalits in government jobs. 
• Advocated for the respect and dignity of Dalits. 

Role of other leaders

Ramaswami Naicker:

• Naiker was a strong advocate for social equality and fought against untouchability. He led the Justice Party and the Dravidian Movement. 
• He criticized Hinduism as a tool of Brahmanical control, called the laws of Manu inhuman, and dismissed the Puranas as fairy tales. 

Jagjivan Ram:

• In Bihar, Jagjivan Ram emerged as a key Congress leader and formed the Khetmajoor Sabha and the Depressed Class League.
• In 1937, he organized agricultural laborers in Gopal Ganj, Bihar, to fight for their right to move for better wages. 
• He was the founder president of the Dalit Varga Sangha, one of India’s largest Dalit organizations, aiming to unite downtrodden people. 
• As the labor minister, he helped pass the Labor Act, establishing minimum wages for laborers. 
• He founded the All India Backward Classes Federation, advocating for the interests of backward classes. 

Gandhi Ji:

• Gandhiji incorporated the abolition of untouchability into the national movement, organizing major campaigns like the Varkom and Guruvayur Satyagraha.
• He aimed to make the upper castes aware of the injustice of untouchability through his speeches and writings in Young India and Harijan.
• He believed that Hinduism did not support the idea of untouchability, as the Bhagavad-Gita did not consider a chandala inferior to a Brahmin. 
• To further the upliftment of Harijans, he founded the Harijan Sevak Sangh in 1932, during his imprisonment. 

Swami Vivekananda:

• Swami Vivekananda believed that untouchables were not depressed but suppressed by Hindus, who had, in turn, suppressed themselves. 

Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar:

• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar rose as a key leader for the Depressed Classes by the late 1920s. 
• He began his legal career at the Bombay High Court in 1924, marking the start of his public service as a social worker, politician, writer, and educator. 
• In December 1920, he launched a Marathi fortnightly called “the Mook Nayak” to advocate for the rights of the depressed classes. 
• In January 1919, he presented evidence to the South Borough Reforms (Franchise) Committee, arguing for political rights for the depressed classes in India. 
• In 1924, he founded the “Bahiskrit Hitkani Sabha” in Bombay to support the moral and material progress of untouchable students. 
• To further the cause of untouchables, he started the “Bahiskrit Bharat” fortnightly in April 1927 and the “Janta” weekly in 1930. 
• In 1927, he established the “Samaj Samta Sang” to promote social equality among untouchables and caste Hindus, emphasizing inter-caste dinners and marriages. He also started the “Samta” newspaper in 1929 as the organization’s voice. 
• He led a Satyagraha in 1927 at Mahad in Kolaba district to secure the right for untouchables to draw water from a public tank, which was contested by Hindus claiming it as private property. Ambedkar won the case in the Bombay High Court in 1937. 
• In March 1930, he led another Satyagraha to assert the rights of untouchables to enter the Kalaram temple in Nasik. This Satyagraha was withdrawn in 1934. 
• Ambedkar was recognized as a leader of the depressed classes and was nominated to the three Round Table Conferences in London (1930-1933), serving on several committees until 1934. 
• His demand for a separate electorate for untouchables was opposed by Gandhiji during the Second Round Table Conference in November 1931. 
• In 1935, Ambedkar advocated for untouchables to leave Hinduism and adopt another religion, believing they would never achieve social equality within the Hindu fold. 
• He initially explored Sikhism between 1938 and 1940, but when that proved unsuccessful, he embraced Buddhism and encouraged his followers to do the same, giving “Deeksha” to millions in Nagpur. 
• Political organization of Dalits was also pursued to address socio-economic issues. 
• He established the “Independent Labor Party” in 1936, which won all seats reserved for scheduled castes in the Bombay Presidency legislature. 
• He aimed to abolish the exploitative Khoti system in the Kokan region of Maharashtra and the Vetti or Maharaki system (a hereditary wage-free service to caste Hindus in local administration). 
• He advocated for the recruitment of Mahars into the military, achieving success in 1941 with the formation of the first Mahar Regiment.
• From April 1942 to 1946, he expanded his focus and founded the “Scheduled Castes Federation” as an all-India political party in 1942. 
• The Federation contested elections but was unsuccessful against the Congress party. 
• He cooperated with the colonial government, believing he could secure better benefits for scheduled castes. 
• He served on the Governor General’s Executive Council from 1942 to 1946, using this position to promote the interests of scheduled castes and tribes. 
• He secured funds from the central government for their education and ensured reservation in posts for them in central and provincial services. 
• As democratization progressed, Dr. Ambedkar demanded adequate representation for Dalits in legislatures and administration. 
• The Government of India Act, 1919, allocated one seat to the depressed classes in the central Legislative Assembly. 
• In 1932, the British government announced the “Communal Award”, which provided a separate electorate for the Depressed Classes. 
• Gandhiji protested the Award, particularly regarding the depressed classes, by fasting. 
• The issue was resolved through the Poona Pact in September 1932, which stipulated the reservation of seats for depressed classes from general electorate seats. 
• The Constitution of India now mandates reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes in the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, as per Articles 330 and 332. 
• He joined Nehru’s cabinet as the Law Minister.
• He chaired the drafting committee for the Constitution of India. 
• He was instrumental in drafting the Hindu Code Bill, earning the title of the Modern Manu.
• He successfully incorporated the concerns of Dalits into the constitution. 
• The Dalit Buddhist movement, initiated by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, is a socio-political movement aimed at reinterpreting Buddhism and creating a new sect called Navayana Buddhism.
• This movement, launched in 1956, sought to engage socially and politically, rejecting Hinduism and challenging the caste system while promoting Dalit rights. 
• It gained momentum when Ambedkar and nearly half a million Dalits converted to Navayana Buddhism, advocating for social and political engagement. 
• Various regional strands also emerged, such as the Adi Dharm in Punjab, Adi Hindi in Uttar Pradesh, and Namashvedsas in Bengal. 

Dynamics of Dalit Movement

Sanskritization 

• These leaders embraced Brahminic habits such as vegetarianism, applying sandalwood paste on their foreheads, and wearing the sacred thread.

Examples of such Dalit leaders include:

• Swami Thykkad in Kerala
• Pandi Sunder Lai Sagar in Uttar Pradesh
• Muldas Vaishya in Gujarat
• Moon Vithoba Raoji Pande in Maharashtra

By imitating the customs of higher castes, these Dalit leaders were asserting their right to equality and challenging the social hierarchy. 

Adi-Hindu movement 

• The Adi-Hindu movement emerged in response to the treatment of Dalits as outside the fourfold Varna system, often referred to as 'outcastes' or 'Panchama.' 
• Some Dalit leaders believed that Dalits were the original inhabitants of India and not Hindus. 
• They argued that Aryans or Brahmins had invaded India and imposed untouchability on the indigenous people. 
• The movement suggested that discarding Hinduism would automatically end untouchability. 
• As part of this identity shift, Dalits began to call themselves different names in various regions: Adi-Andhras in Andhra, Adi-Karnataka in Karnataka, Adi Dravidas in Tamil Nadu, Adi-Hindus in Uttar Pradesh, and Adi-Dharmis in Punjab. 
• Acharya Ishvardatt Medharthi (1900–1971) from Kanpur claimed that Dalits, or "Adi Hindus," were the ancient rulers of India who had been enslaved by Aryan invaders. 
• Many Dalits also pursued conversion as a means to escape untouchability and improve their moral and financial conditions. 

Conversions 

Conversion of Dalits to Different Religions

• Christianity : Many Dalits, particularly in Kerala, converted to Christianity. 
• Sikhism : In Punjab, some Dalits converted to Sikhism and are known as Mazhabis, Namdharis, and Kabir Panthis.
• Buddhism : Dalits also converted to Buddhism, notably when Dr. B.R. Ambedkar converted to Buddhism in Nagpur in 1956, along with millions of his followers. 

Finding sects 

• Guru Ghasi Das in Madhya Pradesh: He established the Satnami Sect as a protest against Hinduism. 
• Gurtichand Thakur in Bengal: He founded the Matua Sect in response to Hindu practices. 
• Ayyan Kali in Kerala: He started the Sadha Jana Paripalan Yogam (SJPY) as a form of social reform. 
• Mangu Ram in Punjab: He founded the Adi Dharam movement to promote social equality. 

Dalit literary movement 

• Early Expression: Dalits, facing suppression from the Brahmins who controlled the media, started their own magazine to share their experiences. This marked the beginning of Dalit literature, rooted in the Mukti movement. 
• Rise of Dalit Panthers: With the formation of the Dalit Panthers, a wave of poetry and stories emerged, highlighting the sufferings of Dalits, often linked to the Vedic and Smriti laws. 
• Broader Struggle: Dalit literature emphasized that the struggle was not just against Brahmins but against all forms of exploitation, including self-exploitation within the Dalit community. 
• Outpouring of Emotions: Dalit writers began to express their feelings through new songs, poems, stories, and autobiographies, reflecting their harsh realities. 
• Educated Dalits' Role: Educated Dalits and intellectuals started discussing societal issues openly, aiming to enlighten their less literate peers about the necessary changes. 
• Awareness Through Literature: Dalit literature aimed to compare the past and present situations of Dalits, not to incite hatred, but to raise awareness about their dire conditions. 

Power as means to attain dignity 

• Knowledge as the Foundation of Power: Phule and Ambedkar believed that knowledge is essential for attaining power. Education would equip Dalits with reasoning, judgment, and political strength, leading to improved socio-economic status and dignity. 
• Political Power: They understood that gaining political power is crucial, as it empowers Dalits and reduces dependence on upper castes. With power, Dalits can access better economic and educational opportunities. 
• Upper Castes' Social Power: Upper castes maintain social power through their connections in the political system (bureaucracy, judiciary, legislature), regardless of their material resources. 
• Dalits' Need for Power: Dalits need power to control the economic and political landscape of the country. Phule emphasized that knowledge is the foundation of all virtues and progress. 
• Phule's Vision: Inspired by Thomas Paine, Phule advocated for education as a means to unite Dalits in their struggle for equality. 
• Ambedkar's Call to Action: Ambedkar urged Dalits to educate, organize, and agitate to challenge caste-based injustices and attain power. Education is crucial for understanding the realities of Brahmanism and mobilizing against it. 
• Need for Agitation: Genuine agitation is necessary for Dalits to gain power and succeed in their struggle against exploitation. 
• Gandhi's Approach: Gandhi, while advocating for Dalit rights, focused on preserving the Brahmanical social order and was opposed to inter-caste marriage. 

Post-Independent Dalit Movements 

B.R. Ambedkar and Buddhist Dalit Movement 

• Central Figure: Babasaheb Ambedkar is seen as the most important person in understanding the knowledge and beliefs of the Dalit community. 
• Deep Respect: Dalits have great respect for Ambedkar because they believe he dedicated his entire life to fighting for their freedom and took great personal sacrifices to help them. 
• Breaking Barriers: Ambedkar proved that caste superiority was a false idea by rising to the top of society despite facing many challenges. 
• Guiding Light: He is viewed as someone who showed the way for a better future for Dalits. 

Role in Shaping Modern India

• Law Minister: After India gained independence on August 15, 1947, Ambedkar was invited by the new government to be the first Law Minister of India. 
• Constitution Drafting: On August 29, 1947, he was appointed Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee, responsible for writing India’s new Constitution. 
• Civil Liberties: Ambedkar’s draft included strong protections for civil liberties, such as freedom of religion, the abolition of untouchability, and the prohibition of discrimination. 
• Women’s Rights: He advocated for extensive economic and social rights for women. 
• Affirmative Action: Ambedkar introduced a system of job reservations for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, similar to affirmative action, to address social and economic inequalities. 
• Hindu Code Bill: In 1951, Ambedkar resigned from the cabinet due to the delay of his Hindu Code Bill, which aimed to promote gender equality in inheritance and marriage laws. 
• Political Career: Ambedkar ran for election to the Lok Sabha in 1952 but lost. He was later appointed to the Rajya Sabha, where he served until his death. 

Conversion to Buddhism 

• Consideration of Sikhism: Ambedkar initially thought about converting to Sikhism because it fought against oppression, which resonated with him and other scheduled caste leaders. 
• Rejection of Sikhism: After meeting with Sikh community leaders, Ambedkar felt that converting might place him in a "second-rate status" among Sikhs, leading him to reject the idea. 
• Lifelong Study of Buddhism: Ambedkar studied Buddhism throughout his life. Around 1950, he focused entirely on Buddhism and traveled to Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) for a World Fellowship of Buddhists meeting. 
• Announcement of Conversion: While dedicating a Buddhist vihara near Pune, Ambedkar revealed his intention to write a book on Buddhism and formally convert to the religion. 
• Visits to Burma: Ambedkar visited Burma twice in 1954, with the second visit aimed at attending the third World Fellowship of Buddhists conference in Rangoon. 
• Founding of Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha: In 1955, Ambedkar established this organization to promote Buddhism in India. 
• Completion of Final Work: Ambedkar finished his last book, The Buddha and His Dhamma,  in 1956, which was published after his death. 
• Formal Conversion Ceremony: Following discussions with Sri Lankan monk Saddhatissa, Ambedkar organized a public conversion ceremony in Nagpur on 14 October 1956 for himself and his supporters. 
• Mass Conversion: Ambedkar and his wife converted to Buddhism, followed by the conversion of around 500,000 supporters. 
• Participation in Buddhist Conference: Ambedkar attended the Fourth World Buddhist Conference in Kathmandu, Nepal, shortly after his conversion. 
• Incomplete Works: His projects The Buddha or Karl Marx  and Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Ancient India  remained unfinished. 
• Controversial Allegation: Ambedkar's claim about Hinduism being the foundation of the caste system made him unpopular among the Hindu community. 
• Revival of Buddhist Interest: His conversion sparked renewed interest in Buddhist philosophy in India and abroad. 
• Influence on Political Movements: Ambedkar's political philosophy inspired various political parties, publications, and workers' unions, especially in Maharashtra. 
• Initial Setback for Buddhist Movement: Dr. Ambedkar's death shortly after his conversion hindered the Buddhist movement's progress. 
• Lack of Immediate Support: The movement did not receive the expected mass support from the Untouchable population initially. 
• Leadership Division: Disunity and lack of direction among Ambedkarite leaders further impeded the movement's growth. 
• Census Data (2001): There were 7.95 million Buddhists in India, with at least 5.83 million in Maharashtra, making Buddhism the fifth-largest religion in India. 
• Concentration of Buddhist Revival: The revival is primarily in Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh, associated with figures like Acharya Medharthi. 

Acharya Ishvardatt Medharthi (1900–1971) of Kanpur

• Supported the cause of Dalits and criticized the caste system in India. 
• Studied Pali at Gurukul Kangri and was well-versed in Buddhist texts.
• Initiated into Buddhism in 1937 by Gyan Keto and Lokanatha. 
• Gyan Keto was a German who became a Buddhist after arriving in Ceylon in 1936. 
• Medharthi believed that Dalits, known as "Adi Hindus," were the ancient rulers of India and had been enslaved by Aryan invaders.
• Retired from his Buddhapuri school in 1960 and moved to an ashram in Haridwar. 
• Later joined the Arya Samaj and conducted Vedic yajnas across India. 
• His follower, Bhoj Dev Mudit, converted to Buddhism in 1968 and established his own school. 

Rajendranath Aherwar

• He emerged as a significant Dalit leader in Kanpur. 
• In 1961, he joined the Republican Party of India and, along with his entire family, converted to Buddhism.
• In 1967, he established the Kanpur branch of the "Bharatiya Buddh Mahasabha".

Dalit Buddhist Movement:

• The Dalit Buddhist movement in Kanpur received a boost in 1980 with the arrival of Dipankar, a Chamar bhikkhu on a Buddhist mission. 
• Dipankar's first public appearance was planned for a mass conversion event in 1981.
• This event was organized by Rahulan Ambawadekar, a Dalit leader from the Republican Party of India (RPI) . 

Formation of Dalit Panthers:

• In April 1981, inspired by the Maharashtrian Dalit Panthers, Ambawadekar founded the Dalit Panthers (U.P. Branch).

Dalit Panthers

• In the early 1970s, a new movement called the Dalit Panthers emerged in Maharashtra as part of a nationwide wave of radical politics. 

Background:

• In 1967, the first non-Congress state governments were formed in India. Political movements by youth were gaining momentum worldwide, and in Maharashtra, the Yuvak Kranti Dal was established. 
• Between 1959 and 1964, a significant land rights movement led by Dadasaheb Gaikwad, associated with the Left, conducted agitations in Marathwada and Khandesh, resulting in over 1 lakh people being imprisoned. 
• In the late 1960s, Chief Minister Y B Chavan was compelled to extend reservation benefits to converted Buddhists. 
• Dalit youth felt empowered to challenge the new leadership of the Republican Party of India post-Ambedkar, believing they were not adequately addressing Dalit issues. 
• Dalit literature began to flourish, expressing a new and angry tone. Dr M N Wankhede started Asmita from Aurangabad, while Baburao Bagul launched Amhi (We) in Mumbai. 
• These publications introduced a wave of Dalit literary talents, including Daya Pawar, Namdeo Dhasal, Arjun Dangle, Avinash Mahatekar, and Raja Dhale . Dhasal’s Golpitha, released in 1971, shocked conservative Marathi literary circles with its raw language. 
• Their anger was fueled by recent atrocities against Dalits, such as the public humiliation of a Dalit woman in Pune district. 
• When Dhasal unveiled their manifesto, Zahirnama, in 1972, Dhale countered with a pamphlet accusing it of having a purely Communist agenda. 
• The Dalit Panthers positioned themselves as ideologically aligned with Ambedkar’s thought.

Inspiration from the Black Panther Party:

• The Dalit Panthers drew inspiration from the Black Panther Party, a socialist movement in the United States that fought against racial discrimination during the civil rights era. 
• They adopted the name “Panthers” to symbolize their commitment to fighting for their rights with strength and resilience, much like the panther. 
• The US Black Panther Party supported the Dalit Panthers through their newspaper, which circulated globally from 1967 to 1980.

Formation and Ideological Shift:

• The Dalit Panthers were officially formed on July 9, 1972, in Mumbai, coinciding with preparations to celebrate 25 years of Indian Independence.
• Inspired by the Black Panthers, writer-poets J V Pawar and Namdeo Dhasal founded the Dalit Panthers and called for a boycott of the Independence Day celebrations, declaring it a ‘Black Independence Day’.
• They envisioned the movement as a radical shift from previous Dalit movements, emphasizing militancy and revolutionary attitudes similar to their Black American counterparts. 

Material Conditions for Emergence:

• The children of the Ambedkarian movement were graduating from universities in large numbers in the late 1960s, only to face a bleak future. 
• The constitutional provisions that were supposed to benefit them turned out to be illusory. 
• Their political vehicle was becoming increasingly entrenched in Parliamentarism, losing sight of the real issues faced by the people. 
• The global atmosphere of militant insurgency during that period provided them with the material to articulate their anger. 

Focus on Economic Issues and Social Justice:

• The Dalit Panthers, comprising working-class individuals, moved beyond emotive politics to concentrate on economic issues and social justice. 
• The organization was modeled after the Black Panther Party, with members primarily from Neo-Buddhist and Scheduled Caste backgrounds, and most leaders being literary figures. 
• The controversy surrounding Dhale’s article “Kala Swatantrata Din” (Black Independence Day) in 1972, published in “Sadhana,” generated significant attention and publicized the Dalit Panthers across Maharashtra. 
• The Panthers’ support for Dhale during this controversy brought him into the movement and elevated his status as a prominent leader. 
• This issue’s publicity through the media led to the spontaneous emergence of Panther branches in various parts of Maharashtra. 

Radical Approach and Proletarian Identity:

• The Dalit Panther movement represented a significant departure from earlier Dalit movements, initially emphasizing militancy and the use of rustic arms and threats, which gave the movement a revolutionary character. 
• According to their manifesto, the Dalit Panthers broke new ground by radicalizing the political space for the Dalit movement, imparting a proletarian-radical class identity to Dalits and linking their struggles to those of all oppressed people globally. 
• Their clear leftist stance, although running counter to the accepted legacy of Ambedkar as projected by various icons, was marketed in his name as a tactical maneuver. 
• The integration of Ambedkar’s framework, which addressed the pathos of casteism integral to the Dalit experience, with Marxism’s scientific approach to contemporary deprivations was an innovative yet ultimately unsuccessful attempt. 

Criticism and Decline:

• The Panthers faced criticism for their radical content, with allegations that their manifesto was influenced by radicals, particularly the Naxalites. 
• Despite the Naxalite movement’s potential alliance with the Panthers, the latter’s programme would have been radical even if based on the Black Panther Party’s ten-point programme. 
• The Dalit Panther exposed Dalits to a radical interpretation of Ambedkar and brought a section of Dalit youth closer to this perspective, marking a positive contribution to the Dalit movement. 
• However, like the Black Panthers, they lacked a suitable ideology to channel their anger effectively. 
• The Panthers mirrored both the positive and negative aspects of the BPP, including the ‘TV mentality,’ dogmatism, neglect of economic foundations, and eventual leadership corruptibility. 
• Their militancy largely remained confined to speeches and writings, and their stagnation was partly due to their inability to transcend the petit bourgeois ideological trap associated with Ambedkar’s icons. 
• The clash between the radical and constitutional icons of Ambedkar within the Panthers ultimately led to their decline, with the movement fracturing into numerous factions. 
• The radical icon of Ambedkar, advocating for rationalist methodologies and freedom for followers to seek truth, was projected without adequate conviction, leading to a hodgepodge of interpretations. 
• During the Emergency, Dhasal’s support for Indira Gandhi caused a crisis within the Panthers, resulting in Dhale and Pawar leaving to form the ‘Mass Movement’ after the Nagpur conference in 1976.
• This marked the second stage of the Panthers, with new leaders like Arun Kamble and Ramdas Athawale taking charge and renaming the group the Bharatiya Dalit Panthers.

Kanshiram’s Movement and Mayawati (Bahujan Samajwadi Party) 

• Emergence: The BSP emerged in North India during the 1980s, initially led by Kanshi Ram and later by Mayawati, who became the Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh. 
• Foundation: In 1984, Kanshi Ram founded the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) as a political party aimed at representing the interests of Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), Other Backward Classes (OBCs), and religious minorities. 

Kanshi Ram's Early Work:

• Before Politics: Kanshi Ram worked in the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) but quit in 1971 to address the issues faced by SC, ST, OBC, and minority employees. 
• Employee Welfare: He established the Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribe, Other Backward Classes, and Minorities Employees Welfare Association to address grievances and raise awareness about the caste system. 

Formation of BAMCEF:

• Backward And Minority Communities Employees Federation (BAMCEF): In 1973, Kanshi Ram and his colleagues formed BAMCEF to promote the ideas of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and advocate for the rights of backward and minority communities. 
• Motto: BAMCEF operated with the motto "Educate, Organize, and Agitate," aiming to spread Ambedkar's teachings and raise awareness about caste issues. 

Political Mobilization:

• Ambedkar Mela: In 1980, Kanshi Ram organized the "Ambedkar Mela," a roadshow depicting Ambedkar's life and views to educate people about his principles. 
• Dalit Shoshit Samaj Sangharsh Samiti (DS4): In 1981, he formed DS4 as a parallel organization to BAMCEF, aiming to protect workers advocating for caste awareness. 

Transition to Politics:

• Founding of BSP: In 1984, Kanshi Ram established the BSP as a political party, shifting his focus from social work to politics. 
• Emphasis on Bahujan Identity: Kanshi Ram's approach emphasized the "Bahujan" identity, encompassing all SCs, STs, OBCs, and religious minorities, rather than focusing solely on "Dalit" issues. 

Electoral Strategy:

• Effective Strategy: Kanshi Ram's strategy proved effective in certain regions, revitalizing Dalit politics by broadening the focus to include all downtrodden communities. 
• Political Power: The BSP aimed for political power, often forming alliances with various parties, including Congress, BJP, and Akali Dal (Mann), reflecting a shift from its original goals. 

Critique and Legacy:

• Ambedkar's Legacy: While Kanshi Ram drew on Ambedkar's legacy, his interpretation differed, focusing on political power rather than Ambedkar's values of liberty, equality, and fraternity. 
• Power Dynamics: Kanshi Ram's approach emphasized political power as an end goal, contrasting with Ambedkar's view of political power as a means to achieve social justice. 

Regional Movements:

• Emergence of Regional Dalit Movements: Various regional outfits like Dalit Mahasabha in Andhra Pradesh, Mass Movement in Maharashtra, and Dalit Sena in Bihar have emerged, some engaging in electoral politics while others focus on social movements. 
• Ambedkar's Legacy in Regional Movements: These regional outfits share a similar iconography of Ambedkar, emphasizing his role in advocating for Dalit rights and social justice, without significantly diverging from the mainstream interpretation of his legacy. 

Did State really helped? 

This paper examines how various state policies in India, aimed at helping dalits and the poor, have unintentionally worsened the caste problem. Despite the government's claims of concern, these policies have often benefited middle and upper castes while harming dalits.

Land Ceiling Act:

• Created a new layer of middle caste farmers who became a strong political force.
• These middle castes, traditionally just above dalits, took control of Brahminical practices to ensure their interests.
• They suppressed dalit landless laborers and stifled dalit assertions.

Green Revolution:

• Introduced capitalism in the agrarian sector, benefiting landlords and big farmers.
• Created geographical imbalances and favored urban areas in trade.
• Had a more severe impact on dalits than the Land Ceiling Act.

Programme of Removal of Poverty:

• Widened the gap between dalit aspirations and the feelings of deprivation among poorer non-dalits.
• Special programs for dalit upliftment heightened tensions and deepened the caste divide.

Reservations for Dalits in Services:

• Created hope and a stake in the system, reducing alienation.
• Beneficiaries became politically weaker and inadvertently supported the system.
• Job scarcity allowed reactionary forces to divide youth along caste lines.

Mandal Commission:

• Strengthened caste identities by extending reservations to backward castes.
• Although it empowered richer sections of backward castes, it worsened dalit standing in villages.

Dalits and contemporary Indian Politics: 

• The Indian Constitution provides special provisions for the social and economic uplift of Dalits (Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes) to enable their upward social mobility.
• However, these concessions are limited to Dalits who remain Hindu or Buddhist / Sikh .
• There is a demand among Dalits who have converted to other religions for the extension of statutory benefits to them as well, to address historical injustices.

Hindu Nationalism and Religious Conversion:

• The rise of Hindu nationalism in Indian politics has brought the issue of religious conversion to the forefront.
• Hindu nationalists allege that conversions of Dalits are motivated by allurements such as education and jobs, rather than social or theological reasons.
• Critics argue that the opposite is true, as laws banning conversion and limiting social relief for converted individuals contribute to this phenomenon.
• Some Dalits are also embracing Hindutva ideology.

Affirmative Action and Political Representation:

• The government implements affirmative action measures for the upliftment of Dalits through quotas in government jobs and university admissions.
• Seats in the National and State Parliaments are reserved for Scheduled Caste and Tribe candidates to ensure proportionate political representation, a measure advocated by B. R. Ambedkar and other Dalit activists.

Anti-Dalit Prejudices:

• Anti-Dalit prejudices persist in fringe groups like the Ranvir Sena, an extremist caste-based militia in Bihar, run by upper-caste landlords.
• These groups oppose equal or special treatment of Dalits and resort to violent means to suppress them.

Examples of Prominent Dalits in Politics:

• Babu Jagjivan Ram became Deputy Prime Minister of India.
• K. R. Narayanan was elected as the first Dalit President in 1997.
• K. G. Balakrishnan became the first Dalit Chief Justice of India.
• Mayawati was elected as Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh in 2007, with support from Dalits and Brahmins.
• Other Dalit Chief Ministers include Damodaram Sanjivayya (Andhra Pradesh), Mayawati (Uttar Pradesh), and Jitan Ram Manjhi (Bihar).

Ongoing Challenges:

• Despite anti-discrimination laws, many Dalits continue to face social stigma and discrimination .
• Ethnic tensions and caste-related violence between Dalits and non-Dalits have been observed, often fueled by the economic rise of Dalits and persistent prejudices against them.

The Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DICCI)

The Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DICCI) is an Indian organization that supports business ventures by Dalits. It was founded in 2005 in Pune by Milind Kamble, a civil engineer and entrepreneur. DICCI aims to foster entrepreneurship among Dalit youth and acts as a resource center for aspiring and existing Dalit entrepreneurs.

Key Members:

• Milind Kamble: Founder and Chairperson
• Kalpana Saroj: Prominent businesswoman
• Chandra Bhan Prasad: Social activist and writer
• Rajesh Saraiya: Entrepreneur and DICCI member

Mission and Vision:

• DICCI’s mission is to promote entrepreneurship among Dalits to address their socio-economic challenges.
• The organization encourages Dalits to become job creators rather than job seekers.
• Vision: “Developing Business Leadership”
• Aim: “Fight Caste With Capital”

Challenges Faced by DICCI:

• Funding: Difficulty in accessing early-stage funding for startups.
• Entrepreneurship Development Programs (EDPs): Need for tailored EDPs that consider the social context of Dalit entrepreneurs.
• Scaling Up: Assisting existing Dalit businesses in expanding their operations.
• Collateral-Based Lending: Traditional financial institutions’ preference for collateral creates barriers, as many Dalit entrepreneurs lack valuable assets.
• Knowledge Gap: Lack of understanding regarding the financial sector’s complexities and opportunities.

Recent Dalit Movements:

• Chandrashekhar Azad: Activist from Uttar Pradesh with a new political party.
• Ginni Mahi: A rising star in Dalit folk music, known for “Chamar pop” and “Ambedkar folk.”
• Dalit Asmita Yatra: A march from Ahmedabad to Una, advocating for justice.
• Pradip Rathod: A 21-year-old Dalit man in Gujarat who was murdered for riding a horse, symbolizing defiance.
• Sanjay Jatav: A Dalit man in Uttar Pradesh who broke caste barriers by riding a horse in his wedding procession.