Dalit Movements in India | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

The Dalit movement originated as a protest movement aimed at bringing about significant social and political changes in the status of Dalits in India. For centuries, Dalits had endured severe exploitation and harsh subjugation by the upper castes. They had been marginalized, divided, and oppressed by the dominance of Brahmin culture. However, with the emergence of a new political system, modern administrative structures, a fair judicial system, changes in land ownership and taxation, evolving trade patterns, an inclusive education system, and improved communication networks, the ideals of freedom, equality, and social justice for Dalits gained prominence.
The Dalit movement advocates for the rights and privileges of Dalits. Ruman Sutradhar (2014) asserts that the Dalit Movement is essentially a social revolution aimed at transforming the deeply entrenched hierarchical Indian society, guided by democratic principles of liberty, equality, and social justice. The centuries-long socio-cultural exclusion, economic deprivation, and political exploitation drove Dalits to challenge these age-old biases. Consequently, they began to voice their grievances through literature and the formation of organizations like the Dalit Panthers, eventually coalescing into what we now recognize as the Dalit Movement.
In recent times, postmodern researchers, social scientists, and academics have shown a growing interest in studying the Dalit movement due to its significance as one of India's major social movements. Various Dalit leaders, through their organizations and political parties, have mobilized and inspired the Dalit masses to work towards the overarching goal of creating an inclusive society. With the strong mobilization efforts of the Bahujan Samaj Party, Dalits have been able to actively participate in the democratic electoral process, establishing a distinct identity for themselves. These leaders have also championed the cause of maintaining or expanding reservations in political positions, government employment, and welfare programs, marking this as a new political aspect of the Dalit movement. The Dalit movement has led to a transformation in the caste structure of Indian society and underscored the struggle for self-respect. The current reservation system is a direct outcome of the Dalit movement.

Who is a Dalits?

• Dalits are referred to by various names in different regions of India, such as Holaya, Panchama, Chandala, Samagara, Chammar, Adikarnataka, and Adidravida. The term "Dalit" is derived from the Sanskrit word "Dal," which signifies being oppressed, crushed, or broken. Jyotiba Phule, the founder of the Satya Shodak Samaj, a non-Brahmin movement in Maharashtra during the nineteenth century, first used this term to describe the outcastes and untouchables who were victims of India's caste-based social divisions. Victor Premasagar explains that "Dalit" encapsulates the weakness, poverty, and humiliation faced by Dalits at the hands of upper castes.
• Over time, "Dalit" has evolved into a political identity, much like how African Americans in the United States transitioned from "Negro" to "Black" or "African-American." Dalits now use this term as a symbol of struggle and assertion, moving beyond its original connotation of being broken. The British colonial rulers replaced the term with "depressed class" in 1919, while Gandhi affectionately referred to them as "Harijan." In 1935, the British administration officially categorized them as "Scheduled castes." However, the term "Dalit" was revitalized by the Dalit Panther Movement of Maharashtra in 1970.
• In the Varna Vyavastha (caste system), untouchables are placed within the Panchama Varna, occupying the lowest rung of Indian society. They are considered impure and polluted, subjected to discrimination and violence that deprive them of the basic human rights and dignity promised to all Indian citizens. They were denied access to public facilities like roads, temples, and schools to prevent "pollution" of other castes. Dalits were relegated to polluting occupations such as handling dead bodies, working with leather, and cleaning toilets and sewage.
• The Dalit population accounts for approximately 16.6 percent of India's total population, with significant concentrations in states like Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Orissa, and Maharashtra. In rural areas, Dalits are primarily poor peasants, sharecroppers, and agricultural laborers, while in urban areas, they form a substantial portion of the labor force.
• However, the Dalit movement, as outlined by Sutradhar (2014), has faced significant challenges in challenging Brahmanical exploitation, which remains deeply ingrained in India's social structure. The caste system, originally institutionalized by the Arya-Brahmins, has perpetuated discrimination, and its acceptance is reinforced through hegemonic processes in institutions like schools and temples.
• Brahmins have systematically deprived Dalits of land and resources. The dominant Brahmanical ideology of caste has been challenged by a small group of educated Dalits who organized the broader Dalit movement.
• Gail Omvedt (1976) observes that the independent Dalit movement had to contend with three formidable forces in colonial society:
  • It emerged in opposition to the pervasive influence of Brahminical Hinduism, deeply entrenched in Indian culture.
  • It had to navigate the dominance of the nationalist movement, led by the Congress party, which sought to co-opt the agendas of various subaltern movements while limiting their democratic and egalitarian potential.
  • It faced a complex relationship with the communist movement.

Dalit Mobilization and Dalit Consciousness

• "Mobilization" involves the process of preparing individuals for collective action, where people come together to pursue shared interests, such as protesting for a cause. Scholars like Neil Smelser and Charles Tilly have emphasized the importance of mobilization in collective behavior and movements, as collective action begins with this process.
• In traditional Indian society, untouchables faced severe discrimination and restrictions, including bans on women of the untouchable caste covering their upper bodies, wearing gold ornaments, and having contact beyond their caste. Men were prohibited from wearing dhotis below their knees, using public facilities, and pursuing occupations outside their caste. Untouchables were also forced to carry thorny branches to erase their footprints and wear earthen pots to spit in, preventing "pollution" of higher castes.
• S.C. Dube argues that for the development of class consciousness among Dalits, an ideology specific to Dalits is crucial. Dalit consciousness in contemporary India reflects their pursuit of modernization, whereas in traditional India, it challenged orthodox Brahmanism and Hindu values. Dalit mobilization in India needs to be examined over time to understand how different ideologies have supported it.
• Andre Béteille suggests that contemporary Dalit mobilization in India is driven more by political interests than by past cultural discrimination. The practice of untouchability is diminishing due to the growth of caste-free occupations and legal protections guaranteed by the Indian Constitution.
• Gail Omvedt emphasizes studying Dalit mobilization from a multidimensional perspective, acknowledging its various stages, from initiation to consolidation and maturity. Factors like economic discrimination, lack of social dignity, cultural isolation, and exclusion from decision-making processes fueled the early stages of Dalit mobilization.
• M.S.A. Rao draws parallels between the Dalit movement in India and the Black civil rights movement in America, highlighting the influence of Western ideologies on the Indian social context.
• Yogendra Singh contends that Dalit mobilization aligns with modernization, challenging caste-based hierarchy with principles of equality. Different sociologists have varying viewpoints, but they agree that Dalit mobilization is a significant reality in India.
• Dalit movements have predominantly focused on addressing untouchability, striving to maintain or expand reservations in political offices, government jobs, and welfare programs.
• Ghanshyam Shah classifies Dalit movements into reformative and alternative categories. Reformative movements seek to reform the caste system, while alternative movements aim to create alternative socio-cultural structures through conversion, education, economic progress, and political empowerment. These movements can be religious or secular in nature.
• In the context of Dalit identity and ideology, Shah categorizes Dalit movements based on cultural consensus, competing ideologies, non-Hindu identity, Buddhist Dalits, counter ideologies, and class-based identities. Reformative movements are further divided into Bhakti, Neo-Vedantik, and Sanskritization movements, while alternative movements include conversion and various religious or secular movements, including those related to economic issues.
• Overall, Dalit mobilization has played a significant role in addressing the social and economic disparities faced by Dalits in India, even though it has faced challenges and evolved over time.

Dalit Movement in Pre-independence India

The pre-independence era in India witnessed significant developments in the Dalit movement, aimed at addressing the longstanding discrimination and social injustices faced by Dalits.
Here are the key points regarding the Dalit movement during this period:

Bhakti Movement

• The 15th-century Bhakti movement emerged as a popular movement that promoted equality among all sections of society. It included two traditions: Saguna and Nirguna.
• The Saguna tradition related to the worship of deities like Vishnu or Shiva and supported equality among castes while still adhering to the Varnashram dharma and the caste social order.
• The Nirguna tradition emphasized the worship of a formless universal God and gained popularity among urban Dalits in the early 20th century for promising salvation and social equality.

Neo-Vedantik Movements

• Neo-Vedantic movements were initiated by Hindu religious and social reformers who sought to eradicate untouchability.
• Leaders like Dayanand Saraswati believed that untouchability was not an essential part of Hinduism and aimed to integrate Dalits into the caste system.
• The neo-Vedantic movements played a role in inspiring anti-caste and anti-Hinduism Dalit movements in various regions of India.

Sanskritisation Movement

• M.N. Srinivas defined Sanskritization as a process through which lower-caste or tribal groups adopted customs, rituals, and ideologies of higher castes, often leading to changes in their way of life.
• Some Dalit leaders adopted Sanskritic practices, such as vegetarianism, sacred thread wearing, and other Brahmanic cultural norms, as a means to elevate their social status and assert their right to equality.

Gandhi's Contribution to the Dalit Movement

• Mahatma Gandhi recognized the problem of social discrimination while in South Africa and advocated for the removal of untouchability.
• He established the Harijan Sevak Sangh in 1932, which aimed to uplift the Harijans (Dalits) and promote social reform.

Ambedkar's Contribution to the Dalit Movement

• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar played a pivotal role in the Dalit movement, starting publications like "Bahiskrit Bharat" and "Janta" to advocate for social equality among Dalits.
• He conducted Satyagrahas (nonviolent resistance) to secure the rights of Dalits to access public spaces, such as water tanks and temples.
• Ambedkar's efforts led to the formation of the Scheduled Castes Federation, a political party that worked for the rights and welfare of Dalits.

Dalit literary movement

• Dalit literature in India gained widespread recognition, extending beyond regional boundaries. Dadawala (2016) notes that even prior to the 1960s, several writers such as Baburao Bagul, Bandhu Madhav, Shankarao Kharat, Narayan Surve, and Anna Bhau Sathe were addressing Dalit concerns in their literary works. Baburao Bagul (1930–2008) is regarded as a pioneer in Marathi Dalit literature. His collection of short stories titled "Jevha Mijat Chorali" (When I Concealed My Caste), published in 1963, was groundbreaking as it challenged the conventional norms of Marathi literature by vividly portraying social exploitation.
• Namdeo Dhasal, who established the Dalit Panthers organization, played a significant role in further strengthening and expanding the Dalit literary movement in India. A multitude of literary figures including Laxman Gaekwad, Laxman Pawar, Daya Pawar, Waman Nimbalkar, Tryambak Sapkale, Arun Dangle, Umakant Randhir, J. V. Pawar, Tarachandra Khandekar, Yogi Raj Waghmare, Avinash Dolas, Kishore Shantabai Kale, Narendra Jadhav, Yogendra Meshram, and Bhimrao Shirvale emerged as prominent voices in Marathi Dalit writing.
• Many of these Dalit literary works have also been translated into English, making them accessible to a wider audience through anthologies of Dalit writings. This transformation in Indian literature reflects the growing recognition and influence of Dalit voices in addressing the social and political issues faced by this marginalized community.

Post-Independence Period Movements

B.R. Ambedkar and the Buddhist Dalit Movement

• Ambedkar's Dedication to Dalit Emancipation: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was a pioneering figure in the Dalit movement, devoting his life to the upliftment of Dalits. He became India's first Law Minister in 1947 and was appointed Chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee, where he ensured constitutional guarantees for civil liberties, the abolition of untouchability, and the end of discrimination.
• Conversion to Buddhism: In 1950, Ambedkar turned his full attention to Buddhism. He advocated for the conversion of Dalits to Buddhism as a means to break free from the caste system. He organized a mass conversion ceremony in Nagpur in 1956, converting himself and around 500,000 supporters.
• Objectives of Buddhism: Ambedkar believed that Buddhism offered a moral doctrine with two key objectives: creating a non-communal political ideology for Dalits and breaking free from the oppressive caste-based Hindu system.
• Impact of Ambedkar's Conversion: Ambedkar's leadership led to the conversion of thousands of Dalits to Buddhism. This act was seen as a powerful step towards emancipation from the caste system.
• Continuation of Dalit Conversions: Over the years, instances of Dalit conversions to other religions, such as Islam or Christianity, have occurred in response to caste atrocities and discrimination.

Dalit Buddhist Movement's Legacy

• Current Buddhist Population: As of the 2001 census, India has approximately 7.95 million Buddhists, with a significant concentration in Maharashtra. However, Buddhism remains a minority religion in India, constituting less than 1% of the overall population.
• Dalit Buddhist Revival: The revival of Buddhism primarily takes place in two states: Maharashtra, where Ambedkar hailed from, and Uttar Pradesh. Prominent leaders like Bhoj Dev Mudit and Rajendranath Aherwar played vital roles in promoting Buddhism.
• Dipankar's Role in Kanpur: The Dalit Buddhist movement in Kanpur gained momentum with the arrival of Dipankar, a Chamar bhikkhu, in 1980. He organized mass conversion drives and established a presence for Buddhism in the region.

Dalit Panthers Movement

• Formation and Inspiration: The Dalit Panthers movement, founded in 1972 in Maharashtra by Namdeo Dhasal, J. V. Pawar, and others, drew inspiration from the Black Panther Party in the United States. It aimed to combat caste discrimination.
• Radical Politics: The Dalit Panthers advocated radical politics and fused the ideologies of Ambedkar, Jyotirao Phule, and Karl Marx. They played a crucial role in popularizing the term "Dalit" and highlighting the struggles of oppressed communities.
• Challenges and Drawbacks: While the Dalit Panthers movement was influential, it faced challenges such as militancy, dogmatism, and leadership issues, similar to some aspects of the Black Panther Party.

Kanshi Ram's Contribution

• Formation of BSP: Kanshi Ram established the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) in 1984, focusing on the upliftment of marginalized communities, including Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes, and religious minorities.
• Educational Campaigns: Kanshi Ram used educational campaigns to raise awareness about caste discrimination and Ambedkar's teachings. He organized events like the "Ambedkar Mela" and founded the Dalit Soshit Samaj Sangharsh Samiti.

Mayawati's Contribution to the Dalit Movement

• Mayawati's Leadership: Mayawati served as the Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh for multiple terms and led the BSP. She emphasized social change and economic empowerment for marginalized communities.
• Land Distribution: Mayawati's government distributed land to the landless poor, particularly from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. This initiative aimed to provide economic empowerment to marginalized groups.
• Reservation and Welfare Programs: Her government focused on filling reservations, providing for SC/ST scholarships, and implementing housing schemes for the urban poor. She played a significant role in empowering Dalits.
• Legacy: Mayawati's leadership is considered a lasting contribution to the Dalit movement in India, instilling a sense of self-confidence among Dalits and emphasizing their political representation and empowerment.

Dalit Women's Movement

In January 1928, a women's association was established in Bombay, with Ramabai Ambedkar, the wife of Dr. Ambedkar, serving as its president. On July 20th, 1942, the All India Depressed Classes Women Conference was held, drawing 25,000 attendees. This event marked the Dalit movement's recognition of women from even the highest castes as Dalits due to their experiences of oppression. In 1993, Ruth Manorama formed the National Federation of Dalit Women (NFDW), compelling women's movements in India to address caste-related issues and advocate against violence targeting Dalit women. The Dalit Mahila Sanghatana was established by Dalit women in Maharashtra in 1995, with a focus on representing Dalit women's concerns at the International Women's Conference in Beijing. The self-representation of Dalit women at the Durban Conference on Racism in 1993 and the International Women's Conference in Beijing in 1995 marked significant milestones in Dalit women's political history. Key supporters of the Dalit women's movement included Ramabai Ambedkar, Mrs. Anjinibai Deshbhratar, Mrs. Gitabai Gaikwad, Mrs. Kirtibai Patil, and Sulochanabai Dongre.
Dalit feminists have articulated the triple oppression faced by Dalit women, comprising:

1. Oppression by upper castes due to their Dalit identity.
2. Class-based oppression, especially for agricultural workers, at the hands of upper caste landowners.
3. Patriarchal oppression experienced from all men, including those within their own caste.

The current objectives of the Dalit Women's Movement include:

1. Changing caste dynamics in their respective regions.
2. Promoting local women's leadership.
3. Protesting against all forms of violence, both against women and men.
4. Negotiating terms with upper caste members during elections.
5. Ensuring that government schemes aimed at Dalits benefit all eligible Dalits.

Dalit women face discrimination based on gender, economic exploitation due to their Dalit status, and caste-based oppression, while also enduring patriarchal norms prevalent within Dalit communities. They also suffer due to the lack of cultural capital that affects Dalits as a whole. Dr. Ambedkar advocated for the rights of both Dalits and Dalit women, emphasizing how practices like sati, enforced widowhood, and child marriage were enforced by Brahmanism to maintain the caste system through the control of women's sexuality, making women the gateways to sustaining the caste system.