Decline and Survival of Indus Valley Civilisation | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Decline of Mohenjodaro and Other Sites

The Decline of Harappan Civilization

The decline of the Harappan civilization is evident from various archaeological findings. Cities like Harappa and Mohenjodaro showed a gradual decline in urban planning and construction, with houses built from old, dilapidated bricks and poorly constructed buildings encroaching on roads and streets. The once well-planned cities were deteriorating rapidly into slums.

Archaeological Evidence of Decline

• Houses with flimsy partitions subdivided courtyards, reflecting a lack of proper planning and care.
• Study of Mohenjodaro's architecture revealed that many entry points to the 'Great Bath' were blocked, indicating neglect.
• Over time, significant structures like the 'Great Bath' and the 'Granary' fell into disuse.
• The late levels of habitation in Mohenjodaro showed a clear decrease in the number of sculptures, figurines, beads, bangles, and inlay works.
• By the end of its existence, Mohenjodaro shrank from an impressive eighty-five hectares to a small settlement of just three hectares.

Arrival of New Cultures

• Before its complete abandonment, Harappa witnessed the arrival of a new group of people, identifiable through their distinct burial practices. This group is associated with the 'Cemetery H' culture.
• This new culture was characterized by pottery different from that of the Harappans, marking a significant shift in the region's cultural landscape.

Decay in Other Regions

• Similar processes of decline were observed in other Harappan sites like Kalibangan and Chanhudaro.
• Buildings linked to power and ideology showed signs of decay, and items associated with displays of prestige and grandeur became increasingly rare.

Population Shifts and Settlement Patterns

• As the core regions of the Harappan civilization, such as Harappa and Mohenjodaro, were abandoned, a study of settlement patterns in the Bahawalpur area revealed a trend of decay.
• Along the Hakra river, settlements decreased from 174 in the Mature Harappan period to 50 in the Late Harappan period.
• In the last two to three hundred years of their existence, settlements in the core region were in decline, with the population either perishing or migrating to other areas.
• While the number of sites in the core triangle of Harappa, Bahawalpur, and Mohenjodaro declined, settlements in outlying areas like Gujarat, East Punjab, Haryana, and upper Doab increased.
• This increase in outlying regions suggests a significant population rise, likely due to the emigration of people from the core regions.

Survival and Change in Outlying Regions

• In the outlying regions of the Harappan civilization, such as Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Punjab, people continued to live, but their way of life had changed significantly.
• Many important features associated with the Harappan civilization, including writing, uniform weights, Harappan pottery, and architectural style, had disappeared in these regions.
• The abandonment of the Indus cities is roughly dated to around 1800 B.C.
• This date is supported by the fact that Mesopotamian literature ceased to mention Meluhha by the end of 1900 B.C.
• However, the exact chronology of the end of Harappan cities remains uncertain.
• It is still unclear whether the major settlements were abandoned simultaneously or at different times. Nevertheless, the abandonment of major cities and the de-urbanization of other settlements clearly indicate the decline of the Harappan civilization.

Theories of Decline

Scholars have proposed various explanations for the decline of the Harappan civilization, with some suggesting a sudden and dramatic collapse. Here are some of the more plausible theories:

• Destruction by Massive Floods: Some researchers believe that catastrophic floods could have played a significant role in the downfall of the urban communities.
• Shift in River Courses: Another theory suggests that the decline was due to changes in river courses and the gradual drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra river system, which would have severely impacted the region's agriculture and water supply.
• Aryan Invasions: Some scholars propose that invasions by barbarian Aryan groups contributed to the destruction of the cities and the decline of the civilization.
• Ecological Disruption: There is also a theory that the growing demands of urban centers disturbed the local ecology, making the region unable to support the population and leading to decline.

Theories on the Decline of the Harappan Civilization

1. Theory of Aryan Invasions

The idea that the Harappan civilization was destroyed by Aryan invaders was initially proposed by Ramaprasad Chanda and later expanded upon by Mortimer Wheeler. Wheeler suggested that the skeletal remains found at Mohenjodaro were evidence of an Aryan massacre.

Evidence from the Rig Veda

• Wheeler argued that references in the Rig Veda to forts, attacks on walled cities, and the god Indra as "purandara" (fort destroyer) indicate an Aryan invasion of Harappan cities.
• The Rig Veda mentions the fortresses of the Dasas and Dasyus.
• Wheeler identified a place called Hariyupiya in the Rig Veda with Harappa, suggesting a battle between Aryans and Harappans.
• Wheeler concluded that Aryan invaders destroyed Harappa, but later acknowledged other factors like floods and resource depletion.
• He suggested that the Cemetery-H culture represented the Aryan invaders.

Criticism

• Scholars like P. V. Kane, George Dales, and B. B. Lal refuted the invasion theory.
• The evidence from the Rig Veda is inconclusive and lacks archaeological support for an invasion.
• There is no evidence of military conflict at Harappan sites.
• The skeletal remains at Mohenjodaro do not support a single event or invasion.
• The sterile layer between Harappan and Cemetery-H levels contradicts Wheeler's theory.
• K. A. R. Kennedy's analysis shows no major influx of new settlers.
• The decline of the Harappan civilization around 1800 B.C. predates the arrival of Aryans around 1500 B.C.

2. Natural Disasters (Floods and Earthquakes)

• Natural disasters, including floods and earthquakes, may have played a role in the decline of the Harappan civilization.
• Silt debris at Indus cities like Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro, and Lothal indicates damage from swollen rivers.
• Thick silt deposits at Mohenjodaro suggest repeated flooding episodes leading to the city's decline.
• Evidence of deep flooding and collapsed buildings indicates catastrophic flooding at Mohenjodaro.
• Flood waters may have risen up to 80 feet above present ground level, causing temporary desertion and reoccupation of the city.
• Catastrophic flooding could have resulted from tectonic movements, creating a natural dam and prolonged submergence of cities along the Indus River.
• Sites like Sutkagedor and Sutka-koh, once seaports of the Harappans, are now far from the coast due to land uplift caused by tectonic activity.
• Violent earthquakes, damming rivers, and burning towns may have disrupted the commercial life of the Harappan civilization.

Criticism of Flooding Theory

• Critics argue that the flooding theory is unconvincing.
• H.T. Lambrick points out that a river dammed by tectonic uplifts would not hold back the Indus's large water volume.
• Silt deposition would align with the rising water surface, not the former river course.
• Critics also note that the theory does not explain the decline of settlements outside the Indus system.

3. The Shifting of the Indus River

• The shifting of the Indus River may have contributed to the decline of the Harappan civilization.
• The river's change in course could have led to the abandonment of cities along its banks.
• As the river moved, it may have caused flooding in some areas while leaving others dry.
• These changes would have disrupted agriculture, trade, and daily life, contributing to the civilization's decline.

H.T. Lambrick's Hypothesis on the Decline of Mohenjodaro

• H.T. Lambrick suggests that changes in the course of the Indus River might have led to the decline of Mohenjodaro.
• The Indus is known for being unstable and often shifts its riverbed.
• According to Lambrick, the river shifted about thirty miles away from Mohenjodaro.
• This shift caused the people of Mohenjodaro and surrounding villages to abandon the area due to a lack of water.
• Such shifts in the river's course happened multiple times throughout the history of Mohenjodaro.
• The layer of silt found in the city is actually a result of wind action bringing in sand and silt, not from river floods.
• This silt, combined with decaying mud, mud bricks, and baked brick structures, has been wrongly interpreted as flood silt.

Criticism of Lambrick's Theory

• The theory does not fully explain the decline of the entire Harappan civilization; it only accounts for the abandonment of Mohenjodaro.
• If the people of Mohenjodaro were used to river shifts, they could have relocated and established a new city similar to Mohenjodaro.
• Lambrick's hypothesis is considered unconvincing because it relies on circumstantial evidence.

Ecological Imbalance: Over-Exploitation of the Environment

Overview

• Scholars, including Fairservis, attribute the decline of the Harappan civilization to ecological issues.
• They argue that the growing populations of people and cattle exceeded the resource limits of the Harappan culture zone.

Key Points

• The delicate ecological balance of the semi-arid regions was disrupted due to the rapid depletion of forests, food, and fuel resources by humans and cattle.
• Over-exploitation occurred through over-cultivation, overgrazing, and excessive tree cutting for fuel and farming.
• The combined needs of townspeople, farmers, and herders exceeded the area’s production capacities.
• A growing population of humans and animals faced scant resources, leading to the gradual depletion of forests and grass cover, reduced soil fertility, floods, droughts, and increased soil salinity.
• This depletion of the subsistence base put a strain on the entire economy of the civilization.
• Harappan communities gradually moved to areas with better subsistence options, such as Gujarat and eastern regions, away from the Indus.

Fairservis's Theory

• Fairservis’s theory is considered the most plausible explanation for the decline.
• The gradual decline in town planning and living standards reflected the deteriorating subsistence base.
• The decline was further exacerbated by raids and attacks from surrounding communities.

Criticism of Environmental Disaster Theory

• The theory faces challenges, as the enduring fertility of Indian subcontinent soils over millennia contradicts the idea of soil exhaustion.
• The estimation of Harappan population needs is based on limited information, requiring more data for accurate calculations.
• The emergence of the Harappan civilization involved a delicate balance between cities, towns, villages, rulers, peasants, nomads, and neighboring communities with essential trade minerals.
• Any breakdown in these relationships could lead to the decline of cities.

Gradual Desiccation and Climate Change

Increased Aridity and the Drying Up of the Ghaggar

• While Mohenjodaro may have declined due to natural floods, Harappan sites in the Ghaggar-Hakra valley were affected by gradual desiccation.
• D.P. Agarwal and Sood argue that the decline was due to increasing aridity and the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra river.
• They noted that arid conditions increased by the middle of the second millennium B.C.
• In semi-arid regions like Harappa, even a minor reduction in moisture could lead to disaster, impacting agricultural production and city economies.
• The Ghaggar-Hakra area was a core region of the Harappan civilization, with the Ghaggar river flowing through Punjab,Rajasthan, and Kutch before emptying into the sea.
• Tectonic disturbances caused the Sutlej stream to be captured by the Indus, and the Yamuna to shift east to join the Ganges.
• This change left the Ghaggar waterless, having catastrophic implications for towns in the area.
• Ecological disturbances from increased aridity and drainage pattern shifts contributed to the decline of the Harappan civilization.
• M.R. Mughal’s research shows a drastic reduction in settlements as the river dried up.

Criticism

• The theory of arid conditions needs further development and more information.
• The dating of the drying up of the Ghaggar is not yet properly established.
• A sudden rise in the Arabian Sea coastline of west Pakistan could have caused floods and increased soil salinity, disrupting coastal communications and trade.
• Gurdip Singh's study of pollen from Rajasthan lakes suggests a link between drier climate and the decline of the Harappan civilization, but sediment studies indicate that drier conditions may have preceded the civilization.
• The role of climatic change in the decline of the Harappan civilization remains unclear.

Monsoon Link Theory of 2012

• Proposed by Ronojoy Adhikari,Liviu Giosan, and others
• Attributes the decline of the Harappan civilization to climate change.
• Suggests that around 4000 BCE, an extreme monsoon climate was unfavorable for civilization development.
• With the weakening of the monsoon, conditions became favorable for the rise of the Harappan civilization.
• Further weakening of the monsoon led to unfavorable conditions again, contributing to the civilization's decline.
• Illustrates the rise and fall of the Harappan civilization through ecological degradation.

Shifting of Monsoon

• Climate change, specifically the eastward migration of the monsoons, contributed to the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC).
• Initially, the eastward migration of the monsoons allowed the civilization to develop, as monsoon-supported farming led to surpluses that supported urban development.
• IVC residents relied on seasonal monsoons for water, lacking irrigation capabilities.
• As the monsoons shifted eastward, agricultural water supply decreased, prompting residents to migrate towards the Ganges basin.
• In the Ganges basin, smaller villages and isolated farms were established, but the small surpluses produced did not support trade, leading to the decline of cities.

Recent Study of IIT Kharagpur, ASI, PRL (2020)

• The decline of the Harappan city Dholavira was linked to the drying up of rivers such as the Saraswati and the Meghalayan drought.
• Researchers connected the rise and fall of Dholavira, located in the Rann of Kutch, to the disappearance of a Himalayan snow-fed river, similar to the Saraswati.
• Evidence of glacial-fed rivers, akin to the mythical Saraswati, in the Rann vicinity was found.
• Dholavira was occupied from the pre-Harappan period to around 3800 years ago, during the Late Harappan period.
• The Dholavirans, likely the region's original inhabitants, demonstrated advanced culture even in early stages, constructing an impressive city and surviving for nearly 1700 years through water conservation.

Study of Under-Sea Fossil Evidence and Marine DNA (2018)

• Climate change was identified as a key factor driving the people of the Indus Valley Civilization away from the Indus floodplains.
• Research by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution(WHOI) used under-sea fossil evidence and marine DNA to establish that climate change, marked by an increase in winter monsoon, led to the migration of people and the decline of the ancient civilization.
• Beginning around 2500 BCE, shifts in temperature and weather patterns over the Indus Valley caused summer monsoon rains to gradually diminish, making agriculture challenging or impossible near Harappan cities.
• While summer monsoons became unreliable, the foothills received more consistent moisture and rain.
• Evidence of the shift in seasonal rainfall and the resultant transition away from reliance on Indus floods to irrigation from foothill rains was derived from ocean sediment samples near the mouth of the Indus.
• The seafloor near the Indus mouth, characterized by low oxygen levels, preserved organic material well.
• During winter monsoons, strong winds brought nutrients from deeper ocean waters to the surface, fostering surges in plant and animal life. Conversely, weaker winds during other seasons resulted in lower productivity in offshore waters.
• As winter monsoons became stronger and summer monsoons weaker, the later years of the Harappan civilization saw a shift from urban centers to rural communities.

Decline in Lapis Lazuli Trade with Mesopotamia

• Shereen Ratnagar suggested that the decline in the lapis lazuli trade with Mesopotamia contributed to the downfall of the Harappan civilization. However, whether this trade was crucial for the Harappans is debatable, making it an uncertain factor in their decline.
• Archaeological evidence does not provide direct insight into the social and political aspects of the Harappan decline. What is clear is that Harappan culture experienced a gradual process of de-urbanization. The mature Harappan phase was succeeded by a post-urban period known as the late Harappan phase.

The Tradition Survives: Late Harappan Phase

• Researchers studying the Indus civilization have shifted their focus from trying to understand the reasons behind its decline to exploring aspects of continuity within the Harappan tradition. This change in perspective emerged in the late 1960s when scholars like Malik and Possehl began examining the enduring elements of the Harappan way of life.
• While it is true that major urban centers like Harappa and Mohenjodaro were abandoned, and the urban phase came to an end, a broader view of the Harappan civilization's geographical spread reveals that certain aspects continued in the old style. Some settlements were abandoned, but many others remained occupied. However, the tradition of uniform writing, seals, weights, and pottery was lost. The objects that indicated intensive interaction among far-flung settlements disappeared, marking the end of city-centered economies and the urban phase.
• Small villages and towns continued to exist, and archaeological finds from these sites demonstrate many elements of the Harappan tradition. In most sites in Sindh, it is challenging to observe any significant change in the pottery tradition. In regions like Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Haryana, vibrant agricultural communities emerged in large numbers in the subsequent period. From a regional perspective, the period following the urban phase can be seen as one of flourishing agricultural villages, which outnumbered those of the urban phase.
• Consequently, scholars now discuss issues such as cultural change, regional migrations, and modifications in settlement and subsistence systems. The late Harappan phase is characterized by five geographical zones:

Sindh

• In Sindh, the late Harappan phase is represented by the Jhukar culture at sites such as Jhukar, Chanhudaro, and Amri.
• The transition from the mature to the late Harappan phase in this region does not show any sudden discontinuity.
• There were gradual changes in seals, a decrease in the frequency of cubical weights, and writing became confined to pottery.
• People continued living in brick houses but abandoned the planned layout.
• They used a slightly different pottery called Jhukar pottery, which evolved from Mature Harappan pottery.
• This pottery was a buff-ware with red slip and black paintings, indicating reciprocal contacts between the Jhukar culture of Sindh and the late Harappan culture at Lothal and Rangpur.
• Distinctive metal objects found in Jhukar suggest trade links with Iran or the influence of migrants from Iran or Central Asia.
• Circular stamp seals of stone or faience and a bronze cosmetic jar indicate contacts with cultures west of the Indus.

Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan

• In Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan, several settlements continued to thrive after the decline of the cities.
• However, Harappan influences on pottery gradually diminished, and local pottery traditions replaced Harappan pottery altogether.
• The decline of urbanism was reflected in the reassertion of regional traditions in these areas.
• In Western Punjab and the Ghaggar-Hakra valley, the late Harappan phase is represented by the Cemetery-H culture.
• The number of settlements declined from 174 in the mature Harappan phase to 50 in the late Harappan phase.
• In East Punjab, Haryana, and North Rajasthan, late Harappan settlements were smaller compared to mature Harappan ones.
• Sites such as Mitathal, Bara, Ropar, and Siswal are well-known, with brick houses reported from Bara and Siswal.

Ganga–Yamuna Doab

• In the Ganga–Yamuna doab, there were 130 late Harappan sites compared to 31 mature Harappan sites.
• Settlements were small, with houses generally made of wattle and daub, but the agricultural base was diverse.

Kutch and Saurashtra

• In Kutch and Saurashtra, the end of the urban phase is documented in places like Rangapur and Somnath.
• Even during the urban phase, a local ceramic tradition coexisted with Harappan pottery, which continued in later phases.
• Some sites like Rangapur became more prosperous in the succeeding period, using potteries like Lustrous Red Ware.
• People stopped using Indus weights, script, and tools imported from distant areas, opting for locally made stone tools.
• The number of settlements increased from 13 in the Mature Harappan phase to over 200 in the Late Harappan phase in Gujarat.
• This increase in settlements and population cannot be explained by biological factors alone, suggesting that people from other areas inhabited these new settlements.
• Late Harappan settlements have also been reported from Maharashtra, where their culture merged with emerging agricultural communities.
• While there was abandonment or population reduction in Sindh and Cholistan, the increase in settlements in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, northern Rajasthan, and Gujarat indicates that this was not the case everywhere.
• At the same time that people were abandoning Mohenjodaro, the people of Rojdi in Saurashtra were expanding and rebuilding their settlement.
• The evidence suggests an eastward and southward shift of settlements and people.

Pottery

• Late Harappan pottery has a less bright slip compared to mature Harappan pottery.
• Pots tend to be thicker and sturdier.
• Some classic Harappan shapes, such as the beaker, goblet, perforated jar, s-shaped jar, and pyriform jar, disappear, while other shapes like jars of different shapes and the dish-on-stand continue.

Urbanism

• Various elements of Harappan urbanism, such as cities, script, seals, specialized crafts, and long-distance trade, declined in the late Harappan phase but did not completely disappear.
• Some late Harappan sites, like Kudwala in Cholistan, Bet Dwarka in Gujarat, and Daimabad in the upper Godavari valley, can be described as urban, although they are few and far between.
• There was no city that matched the grandeur and monumentality of Mohenjodaro and Harappan cities, although baked bricks and drains are present in the Cemetery H occupation at Harappa, and at Sanghol, there was a solid mud platform on which mud houses stood.

Writing and Seals

• Writing is occasionally encountered but remains generally confined to a few potsherds.
• Graffiti on pottery occurs in Saurashtra and northern Gujarat, as well as in eastern regions.
• Some circular seals occur at Daimabad and Jhukar, but they are not rectangular like typical Indus specimens.
• Rectangular seals without motifs were found at Dholavira.
• A rectangular conch shell seal with a motif of a three-headed animal, similar to seals from the Persian Gulf, was found at Bet Dwarka, suggesting continued contact with the Persian Gulf in the late Harappan phase, at least in the Gujarat region.

Trade and Craft Traditions

• The scale of trade declined, as indicated by the relatively sparse evidence of interregional procurement of raw materials.
• Some craft traditions survived urban collapse and are found in the late/post-Harappan mosaic, such as faience (glazed earthenware decorated with opaque colors).
• Ornaments fashioned out of faience are commonly found in the post-Harappan period.
• The late Harappan phase at Bhagwanpura shows flourishing specialized craft activity, with two clay tablets and 19 sherds with graffiti, which could represent a script.

Metal Technology

• Continuity can be seen in the character of metal technology, although there was a general decrease in the use of copper.
• The bronzes from Daimabad in Maharashtra, made by the “lost wax” process, and the replication of a marine shell in copper at Rojdi in Gujarat, underline the continuation of the technical excellence of the Indus copper and copper alloy traditions.

Regional Identity

• In Punjab and Haryana, there are faience ornaments, beads of semi-precious stones, terracotta cart frames, kilns, and fire altars.
• Instead of a civilization, there were cultures, each with its distinct regional identity, with no cultural cohesion or artefactual uniformity that characterized the earlier civilization.
• Notable developments in the late Harappan phase include the diversification of agriculture, with evidence of double cropping at Pirak in Baluchistan and large settlements in the Kachi plain growing a variety of crops, supplemented with irrigation.
• Rice and millets were found at late Harappan levels at Harappa.
• The general picture of the late Harappan phase is one of the breakdown of urban networks and the expansion of rural ones.
• Overlap between late Harappan and Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture at sites such as Bhagwanpura and Dadheri in Haryana, and Katpalon and Nagar in Punjab, is also significant.
• Evidence from Gujarat, north Maharashtra, and western Uttar Pradesh suggests eastward and southward migration of the Harappans.

Cemetery H Culture: A Transition from the Indus Valley Civilization

The Cemetery H culture emerged around 1700 BCE from the northern part of the Indus Valley Civilization, particularly in the western Punjab region. It was named after a cemetery discovered in “area H” at Harappa. This culture, along with the Gandhara grave culture and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, is considered a core component of the early Vedic civilization.

Distinguishing Features of Cemetery H Culture

• Cremation Practices: Unlike the Indus civilization, where bodies were buried in wooden coffins, Cemetery H culture involved the cremation of human remains. The bones were then stored in painted pottery burial urns.
• Pottery Styles: The use of reddish pottery, often painted in black with intricate designs like antelopes, peacocks, and sun or star motifs, marked a significant change from earlier periods.
• Settlement Expansion: There was a notable expansion of settlements into the eastern regions.
• Agricultural Shifts: Rice emerged as a primary crop during this period.
• Trade Decline: The extensive trade networks of the Indus civilization began to decline, as evidenced by the reduced use of materials like marine shells.
• Architectural Continuity: The continued use of mud bricks for construction reflected a persistence of earlier building practices.

Transmission and Survival of the Harappan Tradition

• The decline of urban centers did not signify the end of the Harappan tradition. Harappan communities gradually merged with surrounding agricultural groups, although the centralized decision-making that characterized the urban phase came to an end. These communities likely retained older traditions, including forms of worship.
• The priests from the Harappan urban centers, part of a well-organized literate tradition, may have preserved religious practices even after literacy declined. The dominant community in the early historic period identified as ‘The Aryans’, who seemingly lacked a literary tradition. It is possible that the priestly groups from the Harappans integrated into the ruling groups of the Aryans, facilitating the transmission of the Harappan religious tradition to historical India.
• Folk communities also maintained craftsmanship traditions, evident in pottery and tool-making practices. When literate urban culture re-emerged in early India, it absorbed elements from folk cultures, providing an effective channel for the transmission of Harappan traditions.
• Many aspects of the Harappan civilization persisted in subsequent historical traditions, including cults of Pasupati (Siva), the mother goddess, and phallic worship. The cult of sacred places, rivers, trees, and sacred animals also showed continuity.
• Evidence of fire worship and sacrifice in sites like Kalibangan and Lothal highlighted significant elements of Vedic religion. Domestic life aspects, such as house plans, water supply arrangements, and bathing practices, endured in later settlements. The traditional weight and currency system, based on a ratio of sixteen, originated in the Harappan civilization.
• Techniques for making potter's wheels and the use of bullock carts and boats in modern India bear resemblance to those employed by the Harappans, showcasing the enduring legacy of Harappan innovations.