Democracy : Classical and Contemporary Theories | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction: Meaning of Democracy

Democracy is both a form of government and an ideal, representing goals and standards that societies strive for. At its core, democracy is about self-governance, where the power lies with the people. The term democracy originates from ancient Greece, specifically from the Greek word 'demokratia', which means rule by the people. This concept opposes the notion of a distinct separation between the ruler and the ruled. It is worth noting that while terms like communism and socialism are associated with Marxism, democracy does not have a specific doctrinal source or ideology.

In fact, democracy is a culmination of the development of Western civilization, which has led to its rather loose usage. As a result, the history of the idea of democracy is intricate and filled with conflicting and confusing interpretations. This complexity arises because democracy's history is still ongoing and its issues are multifaceted. Despite these challenges, democracy is often justified and defended based on the fundamental values it promotes, such as equality, liberty, moral self-development, common interest, private interests, and social utility.

Various interpretations have been given to the term 'democracy.' Some of these include:

• A form of government where people directly govern themselves;
• A society that values equal opportunity and individual merit over hierarchy and privilege;
• A decision-making system based on majority rule;
• A system that protects minority rights by limiting the power of the majority;
• A method for selecting public officials through a competitive electoral process;
• A government that serves the people's interests, irrespective of their political participation (Heywood, 1997:66);
• A governance system founded on the consent of those being governed.

The common thread in these definitions is that democracy connects the government to the people. However, the nature of this connection varies depending on the broader political culture of a society. As a result, there have been ideological disputes and political debates about the specifics of democratic rule. Nevertheless, any discussion of democracy generally addresses three key questions:

1. Who constitutes "the people"?
2. In what way do the people exercise their rule?
3. To what extent should the scope of popular rule be extended (Heywood, 1997:66)?

What is Direct Democracy?

Direct Democracy refers to a form of self-governance where all decisions are made through the participation of all adult citizens in a spirit of equality and open deliberation. This system promotes informed, logical, and rational decisions by allowing individuals to discuss, influence, and be influenced by the collective. Aristotle, an ancient Greek philosopher, emphasized that in direct democracy, "all command each and each in his turn all." Modern instances of direct democracy include referendums and the 'Gram Sabha' in rural India, as established by the 73rd Constitutional Amendment.

Principles of Direct Democracy

In direct democracy, the best decisions are achieved not through voting but through consensus, which emerges from careful deliberation of options and alternatives. The following principles apply:

• People's Sovereignty: The people hold ultimate power and authority in a direct democracy.
• Inalienable Sovereignty: Sovereignty cannot be represented or transferred; it must be exercised by the people themselves.
• Direct Expression of General Will: People must express their will and make decisions directly through referenda, without relying on representatives.
• Majority Rule: Decisions are based on the majority opinion, ensuring that the collective will is respected.

Direct democracy aims to eliminate the distinction between the government and the governed, and between the state and civil society. It is a system of popular self-government where state and society become one.

Merits of Direct Democracy

Direct democracy offers several advantages:

• Enhanced Citizen Control: It allows citizens to have greater control over their destinies, as they are directly involved in decision-making processes.
• Educational Benefits: Direct democracy creates a more informed and politically sophisticated citizenry, fostering a deeper understanding of political issues and processes.
• Expression of Public Views and Interests: It allows the public to express their views and interests without relying on politicians who may have their own agendas.
• Legitimacy of Rule: People are more likely to accept decisions they have made themselves, ensuring that rule in a direct democracy is legitimate and widely accepted.

Greek Democracy as Direct Democracy

The ancient Athenian democracy of the 4th century BC is considered the epitome of direct democracy, where all major decisions were made by mass meetings of the citizenry. The Assembly or Ecclesia, to which all citizens belonged, made these decisions, meeting at least 40 times a year. Full-time public officials were chosen by lots to ensure broad participation, and their posts were rotated frequently. A council of 500 citizens acted as the executive committee, with a smaller 50-member committee making proposals to the council.

• Athenian Democracy: Reasons for its Fame: Athenian democracy was remarkable due to its inclusion of the entire citizenry in public affairs. Citizens not only participated in regular meetings, but also took on the responsibilities of public office and decision-making. The demos held sovereign power, engaging in legislative and judicial activities, with citizenship requiring direct participation in state affairs.
  Athenian democracy was characterized by a commitment to civic virtue, meaning dedication to the city-state, subordination of private life to public affairs, and achievement of the common good. There was no separation of public and private life, and citizens had rights and obligations as members of the political community.
• Aristotle’s ‘The Politics’: Aristotle's work "The Politics" provides a detailed account of ancient democracy, analyzing its ethical standards, claims, and aims. He argues that liberty and equality are intertwined, with one being difficult to achieve without the other. Two criteria of liberty are a) to rule and be ruled in turn, and b) to live as one chooses. For these criteria to be effective, all citizens must be equal. Numerical equality, or equal share in ruling, is necessary for the majority to be sovereign. Classical democracy, including direct democracy, therefore, entails liberty, which in turn entails equality.
• Protective Democracy: While classical democracy focused on the participation of all citizens, protective democracy emphasized protecting citizens from the encroachments of government. This form of democracy was less about participating in political life and more about ensuring the protection of citizens' rights and liberties.

Origin of the Protective Democracy

John Locke is regarded as the main advocate of protective democracy, with his civil society based on democratic principles created through a social contract to protect the rights to life, liberty, and property. James Madison and the proponents of utilitarianism, Jeremy Bentham, James Mill, and John Stuart Mill, also supported protective democracy, emphasizing the safeguarding of rights, liberties, and opportunities.

Features of Protective Democracy

• Popular Sovereignty: Protective democracy believes in popular sovereignty, with citizens participating in state affairs through their representatives.
• Protection of Rights and Liberties: The primary duty of the state is to protect citizens' rights and liberties, with citizens keeping a vigilant watch over the state's functions.
• Constitutionalism: Both rulers and the ruled are controlled by the principles laid down in the constitution.
•  Freedom of Organizations: Organizations, associations, and groups have ample freedom and act as defenders of citizens' rights and liberties.
• Competition: A competitive atmosphere prevails in all spheres of life in a protective democracy.
• Distinction between State and Civil Society: A clear separation between the state and civil society is strictly maintained.

Limitations of Direct Democracy

1. Exclusivity and Restricted Citizenship: The direct democracy practiced in ancient Athens was characterized by its exclusivity, as it involved only a small section of the population. Citizenship was highly restricted, with no separation between public and private life. Only adult males over the age of 20 years were considered citizens and eligible to participate in political activities. Women, immigrants, and slaves were excluded from the political process, leading to a democracy of patriarchs with limited civic rights for others.
2. Political Equality vs. Equal Power: In Athenian democracy, political equality did not imply equal power for all. Instead, it referred to equality among individuals with equal status, which in this context meant only Athenian-born males. Consequently, a significant portion of the population was marginalized, and the politics of ancient Athens rested on an undemocratic foundation.

Flaws of Athenian Democracy

• Dependency on Slavery: A major flaw of Athenian democracy was its reliance on slavery. The labor of slaves allowed the citizen elite to participate in political activities, creating a democracy built on an unjust system. This dependency on slavery is in stark contrast with modern democracies that are based on market economies.
• Ineffective Government and Fall of the Athenian Republic: The lack of a permanent bureaucracy in ancient Athens contributed to an ineffective government, ultimately leading to the fall of the Athenian republic after its defeat in war. This highlights the limitations of direct democracy in ensuring stable governance.
• Plato's Critique of Direct Democracy: Plato, one of the most influential critics of direct democracy, argued that political equality was flawed as the masses were not inherently equal and therefore could not rule themselves wisely. In his famous work, The Republic, Plato proposed that the government should be placed in the hands of philosopher-kings, or Guardians, who would rule in a manner akin to enlightened dictatorship.
• Impracticality in Larger Modern Democracies: A key drawback of Athenian democracy was that it could only function by excluding the majority of the population from political activities. This model was feasible only in small city-states with limited populations and is not applicable to larger modern democracies with bigger populations as they exist today.

Significance of Athenian Democracy: Despite its flaws, the Athenian model played a crucial role in establishing the democratic principle. The Greeks introduced two essential political concepts that persist in modern times: the idea of a citizen as opposed to a subject, and democracy itself. These innovations have significantly influenced the development of democratic systems in contemporary societies.

Direct Democracy in Modern Times: Contemporary Practices and Methods

Direct democracy has its roots in ancient Athens, where citizens participated directly in the decision-making process through mass meetings. Today, this classical model of direct and continuous popular participation in political life has been adapted to suit modern times and can be found in township meetings in New England, USA, and communal assemblies in smaller Swiss cantons. The most common method of direct democracy used in recent times is the referendum. This essay will discuss the key features of modern democracy and the role of referendums in contemporary politics.

Referendums: A Modern Direct Democracy Tool
In contrast to the mass meetings of ancient Athens, the referendum has become the preferred method of direct democracy in modern times. A referendum is a vote in which the electorate can express their view on a particular issue of public policy. It differs from an election, which primarily focuses on filling public office and does not provide a direct or reliable method of influencing policy content. Referendums are employed to supplement representative institutions rather than replacing them. They can be advisory or binding and may raise issues for discussion, such as propositions or plebiscites.

Key Features of Modern Democracy

• Separation of Powers: For a modern democracy to function effectively, there must be a clear separation of powers between the institutions of the state. This ensures that no single entity has excessive power and that each branch of government can hold the others accountable. The three main branches of government are the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
• Freedom of Opinion, Speech, Press, and Mass Media: The free flow of information and the ability to express opinions without fear of retribution are essential for a healthy democracy. Freedom of speech, press, and mass media allow citizens to stay informed and voice their opinions on public policy issues. These rights also facilitate the exchange of ideas and foster open debate, which is crucial for a well-functioning democracy.
• General and Equal Right to Vote: One of the fundamental principles of democracy is the notion that every citizen should have an equal say in the government's decision-making process. This is achieved through the general and equal right to vote, commonly known as "one person, one vote." This principle ensures that political power is distributed evenly among citizens and helps prevent the concentration of power in the hands of a few.
• Good Governance: Good governance is essential for maintaining a modern democracy, as it focuses on the public interest and ensures the absence of corruption. It involves transparent decision-making processes, efficient use of resources, and the implementation of policies that benefit the majority of citizens. Good governance also includes accountability mechanisms that enable citizens to hold their government responsible for its actions.
• Religious Liberty: In a modern democracy, religious liberty is a fundamental right that allows citizens to practice their religion without interference from the government. This freedom ensures that individuals can live in accordance with their beliefs and values, contributing to a diverse and tolerant society. Religious liberty also protects minority religious groups from discrimination and persecution.

Conclusion

In conclusion, democracy is a complex and evolving concept that has its roots in ancient Greece and has taken various forms throughout history. From the direct democracy of Athens to the protective democracy advocated by Locke and Mill, the underlying principles of citizen participation, equality, and liberty have remained constant. Despite the limitations and flaws of direct democracy, its ideals continue to inform modern democratic practices, such as referendums and the broader principles of good governance, separation of powers, and individual freedoms. Ultimately, democracy serves as a framework for societies to strive for greater inclusivity, representation, and justice in their political systems.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Democracy: Classical & Contemporary Theories

What is the primary difference between direct democracy and representative democracy?

Direct democracy involves all citizens participating directly in the decision-making process, while representative democracy involves citizens electing representatives to make decisions on their behalf. Direct democracy focuses on consensus and active participation, while representative democracy emphasizes the protection of citizens' rights and liberties.

What were the main flaws of Athenian democracy?

Athenian democracy had several flaws, including its exclusivity and restricted citizenship, as only adult males were considered citizens. It also relied heavily on slavery, which contradicts modern democratic principles. Furthermore, its lack of a permanent bureaucracy led to an ineffective government and ultimately contributed to the fall of the Athenian republic.

How do referendums function as a tool for direct democracy in modern times?

Referendums allow citizens to directly express their views on specific policy issues, supplementing representative institutions rather than replacing them. They can be advisory or binding and provide a more direct method for citizens to influence policy content than elections, which primarily focus on filling public office.

What are some key features of modern democracy?

Key features of modern democracy include the separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches; freedom of opinion, speech, press, and mass media; general and equal right to vote; good governance; and religious liberty.

Is direct democracy feasible in large, modern nations?

Direct democracy in its purest form, as practiced in ancient Athens, may not be feasible in large modern nations due to the challenges of including vast populations in the decision-making process. However, elements of direct democracy, such as referendums, can still be integrated into modern democratic systems to supplement representative institutions and enable citizens to have a more direct say in specific policy issues.