Eastern Question: From Treaty of Paris to Treaty of Berlin | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Treaty of Paris to the Treaty of Berlin (1856-1878)

• At the Treaty of Paris, European leaders failed to see that the Turkish Empire in Europe was on the verge of collapse.
• Despite this, countries like England tried to prop up the empire, but their efforts were merely a series of ineffective measures.
• The 19th-century idea of nationalism had begun to influence the Balkan Peninsula, causing the Christian nations under Turkish rule to become restless.
• As a result, despite the apparent protection from the European powers, the Ottoman Empire started to disintegrate.
• Europe's official policy towards the East had no choice but to reluctantly acknowledge a series of established realities.

Violation of the Treaty of Paris:

• Between 1856 and 1878, there were numerous clear violations of the Treaty of Paris, which the European powers had to overlook.

Union of Wallachia and Moldavia into Rumania:

• The first violation was the union of Wallachia and Moldavia into a single kingdom called Rumania.
• Both principalities were inhabited by people of the same ethnic background and language, identifying themselves as Rumanians.
• Driven by the desire for national unity, they sought to merge the two provinces under one national government.
• The Peace of Paris had stipulated that the two principalities were to be autonomous but separate.
• However, in 1859, they challenged this separation by electing the same person,Alexander Couza, as their Prince.
• England, Austria, and Turkey opposed this union, viewing it as a violation of the Treaty of Paris, but Napoleon III supported the nationalist goals of the Rumanians.
• By 1861, the European Powers had to accept the union as an accomplished fact, leading to the establishment of the nation of Rumania.

Serbia's Path to Independence:

• In 1867, Serbia, with the help of Austria and England, managed to secure the withdrawal of Turkish garrisons from her fortresses.
• This action effectively granted Serbia practical independence from Turkey.

Renewal of Russian Interference in the Balkans:

• After recovering from the Crymean War, Russia resumed its involvement in the affairs of the Ottoman Empire.
• In 1865, Russia supported the Cretan rebellion, and in 1870, it assisted the Bulgarians in achieving ecclesiastical independence.
• In 1866, a significant breach of the Peace of Paris occurred when Russia, during the Franco-German War, was encouraged by Bismarck to reject the Black Sea clauses of the Treaty.
• Russia then regained the right to refortify Sebastopol and maintain a fleet on the Black Sea.
• England protested against this move, but to no avail.
• Ultimately, in 1877, England decided to go to war against Turkey.

The Russo-Turkish War (1877-78)

Situation in the Balkans:
In 1875, the Eastern Question became a pressing issue once again.
Nationalism and Pan-Slavism:

• The subject states of Turkey were growing increasingly restless due to rising nationalist aspirations and a heightened sense of racial consciousness.
• The successful struggles for partial or complete freedom by the Serbs, Greeks, and Rumanians inspired other non-Turkish groups in the Balkans to pursue their own movements for freedom.
• This sentiment was particularly strong among the various Slavic peoples in the Balkans, who began to recognize their racial kinship with Slavs in Russia, Poland, and the Austrian Empire.
• Russia encouraged this Pan-Slavic sentiment through propaganda aimed at stirring racial consciousness and national hostility among the southern Balkan Slavs.
• Nationalism began to blend with racialism, and Serbia emerged as a potential leader of the South Slav movement, envisioning a united kingdom under its rule that would include all Serbs and their close relatives, the Croats.

Immediate Cause of the War:

• In addition to Pan-Slavism and growing national sentiment, the disappointment in the hopes for Turkish revival and reform played a crucial role in precipitating the crisis.
• The Sultan failed to implement promised reforms for his Christian subjects.
• His incompetence and extravagance imposed an almost unbearable burden on them.

Revolts in Bosnia and Herzegovina against Turkish Misrule:

• In 1875, peasants in Bosnia and Herzegovina revolted against the harsh extortion of tax collectors as a protest against Turkish misrule.
• Serbs in Montenegro and Serbia sympathized with the peasants and offered assistance.
• The movement threatened to spread widely, prompting the Great Powers to present the Andrassy Note to Turkey, protesting against Turkish misgovernment.
• The Sultan accepted the protest and promised reforms, but the insurgents sought more substantial guarantees than mere promises.
• As Bulgaria also joined the uprising, the Powers issued the Berlin Memorandum, urging Turkey to make concessions and threatening armed intervention if it did not comply.
• However, Great Britain refused to support any coercive measures against Turkey, encouraging the Sultan to disregard European protests.

Bulgarian Atrocities:

• The Bulgarian uprising was met with brutal repression as the Turkish authorities sought to maintain control closer to Constantinople.
• The horrific atrocities committed by Turkish irregulars shocked Europe and stirred widespread horror.

England’s Attitude:

• In England,Gladstone condemned the Turks vehemently, calling for their removal from the province they had “desolated and profaned.”
• However, it was Disraeli, the Prime Minister, who was more concerned about Russia’s potential actions in the Balkans than about the plight of the oppressed Christians in Bulgaria.

Russia Takes Up the Cause of the Oppressed Christians:

• Due to Disraeli’s stance making joint action impossible, Russia decided to act independently and declared war on Turkey in 1877.
• Russia could not overlook the suffering of its coreligionists and fellow Slavs.
• The Russian army crossed the Danube and invaded Turkish territories in Europe and Asia.

Treaty of San Stefano:

• The Sultan sought peace and agreed to the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano, which Russia imposed upon him.
• This treaty effectively called for the dissolution of the Turkish Empire.
• The Sultan was to recognize the independence of Serbia and Montenegro, with expanded territories.
• Reforms were to be implemented in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
• Russia was to acquire Batum and Kars in Asia and Bessarabia in Europe.
• Rumania was to be recognized as independent and compensated with Dobruja for the loss of Bessarabia.
• Notably, the treaty established the creation of “Big Bulgaria,” an autonomous state tributary to Turkey, extending from the Danube to the Aegean and from the Black Sea to Albania.
• The Treaty of San Stefano marked a significant triumph for Russia, erasing the humiliation of the Crimean War and reestablishing its dominance in the Balkans.
• Russia anticipated controlling Bulgaria, which was a product of the treaty.

England Demands Revision of the Treaty:

• England opposed the expansion of Russian influence in the Balkans and called for a revision of the Treaty of San Stefano through a Congress of European Powers.
• Austria, also interested in expanding its influence in the Balkans, shared similar concerns about the creation of strong Balkan states like Bulgaria and the extension of Russian influence in the region.
• Both England and Austria urged Russia to submit the Eastern Question to the collective decision of the Powers, as it affected all of them.
• Under pressure from England, Russia eventually agreed to refer the settlement of the Turkish question to a Congress of European Powers.

Congress of Berlin and Treaty of Berlin (1878):

• The Congress of Berlin convened in 1878 under the presidency of Bismarck.
• It drafted the Treaty of Berlin, which included the following arrangements:
• Montenegro, Serbia, and Romania were declared independent of Turkey.
• The “Big Bulgaria” from the Treaty of San Stefano was divided into two parts: one part became a self-governing principality, paying annual tribute to the Sultan, while the southern part was established as the province of East Roumelia, with an independent administration under a Christian governor but under Turkish suzerainty.
• A significant portion of the Macedonian territories previously included in Big Bulgaria was restored to Turkey.
• Austria was granted the right to “occupy” and administer Bosnia and Herzegovina, which nominally remained dependent on Turkey.
• Russia received Bessarabia and several territories in Asia Minor.
• England secured control of Cyprus through a separate treaty with Turkey.
• Under Bismarck’s leadership, the congress resolved the international crisis caused by the San Stefano treaty by revising the peace settlement to satisfy British interests (preventing Russian naval expansion and maintaining Ottoman integrity) and Austrian interests (allowing Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to enhance its influence in the Balkans).
• While the Treaty of Paris had guaranteed the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, the Treaty of Berlin marked its dismemberment.
• Three Balkan states—Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro—were declared entirely independent of Turkey, while a new state, Bulgaria, was established and made nominally subject to Turkey.

The Treaty of Berlin and Its Impact on the Balkans

The Treaty of Berlin, which followed the Congress of Berlin, aimed to address the complexities in the Balkans after the Russo-Turkish War. However, it ultimately failed to satisfy the national aspirations of the Balkan peoples and instead prioritized the interests of major powers like Austria and Great Britain.

The Defects of the Treaty:

• The main flaw of the Berlin settlement was its disregard for the national sentiments of the Balkan peoples. The treaty sought to balance the conflicting interests of powers like England, Austria, and Russia, but in doing so, it sacrificed the legitimate claims and aspirations of the Balkan nations.

Compromises Made:

• As a part of the compromises, Austria was allowed to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina, and England was granted Cyprus.
• However, these arrangements were made at the expense of national sentiments. For instance, Roumania was displeased with the Russian acquisition of Bessarabia, a territory predominantly inhabited by Roumanians.

Impact on Serbia:

• The Slavs of Bosnia and Herzegovina, who wished to unite with their fellow Slavs in Serbia, were placed under Austrian rule. This decision not only alarmed Serbia but also created tensions between Austria and Serbia, contributing to the eventual outbreak of the First World War.

The Treatment of Bulgaria and Macedonia

Bulgaria:

• The division of Bulgaria, initially envisioned as a large territory in the Treaty of San Stefano, was a significant blow to Bulgarian national aspirations. This division was primarily to appease Austria, which feared that a large Bulgaria friendly to Russia would obstruct its expansion towards the Aegean Sea.

Macedonia:

• The Christians in Macedonia were left under Turkish rule despite the atrocities faced by Bulgarians, highlighting the disregard for national sentiments.
• This arrangement aimed to bolster the weakened Ottoman Empire, but it only prolonged the inevitable decline and increased the suffering of the Macedonian people. The Macedonian issue would continue to be a source of unrest in the region.

Greece and the Ottoman Empire:

• Greece also remained discontented as Macedonia was returned to the Ottoman Empire, further straining relations in the region.
• While Britain and Austria, as guarantors of Turkish integrity, took large portions of Turkish territories, including Cyprus, Bosnia, and Herzegovina, this arrangement seemed like theft rather than a legitimate settlement, especially given their professed commitment to the integrity of the Ottoman Empire.

Long-Term Consequences:

• The Treaty of Berlin did not bring lasting peace to Europe. Although there was no major war for nearly three decades after the treaty, it sowed the seeds of future conflicts.
• By restraining Russia and allowing Austria to expand in the Balkans, the treaty set the stage for future tensions between these powers. Austria’s occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina worsened its relations with Serbia and Russia, leading to complications that ultimately contributed to the First World War.
• Despite Bismarck’s role as an “honest broker,” he had to choose sides during the crisis between Austria and Russia, aligning with Austria and alienating Russia. This decision pushed Russia closer to France, laying the groundwork for the division of Europe into rival camps, namely the Dual Alliance of Russia and France and Bismarck’s Triple Alliance.
• The political landscape in Europe began to shift towards the conditions that would later produce the Great War of 1914.
• Furthermore, the Macedonian issue became a catalyst for the Balkan wars of 1912 and 1913. Instead of pacifying the Balkans, the Treaty of Berlin exacerbated tensions among the Balkan peoples, leading to local conflicts and eventually a global conflagration.

Claim vs. Reality:

• Upon his return from the Congress of Berlin, British Prime Minister Disraeli, also known as Lord Beaconsfield, claimed to have brought “peace with honor.” He believed this was achieved because he had:
• Negated Russia’s Individual Intervention: By compelling Russia to accept the collective authority of the Powers, Disraeli undermined Russia’s claim to individual intervention.
• Administered a Check on Russia: In the interests of England and Austria, a check was imposed on Russia.
• Allowed Turkey to Regain Territory: Turkey was permitted to recover some territory lost at San Stefano.
• Ensured Near-Term Peace: Peace prevailed in the near future, lasting up to three decades. However, despite Disraeli's claims, the reality was different:

The Treaty of Berlin Did Not Weaken Russia:

• Although Russia was checked, it had virtually regained all the losses from the Crimean War.
• While Russia was restrained in the Balkans, it expanded in Central Asia, reaching the northwestern frontier of India and threatening British interests in India.
• This shift meant that the Russian threat to British interests was not eliminated but merely transferred from Europe to Asia.

British Robbery:

• To view the treaty as honorable for England, as claimed by Disraeli, one would need to reconsider the notion of honor.
• The arrangement, which took advantage of Turkey’s vulnerability to seize Cyprus, Bosnia, and Herzegovina, appeared as robbery by Britain, especially given its professed principle of the integrity of the Ottoman Empire.

Seeds of Future Wars:

• Although the treaty brought peace for three decades, it contained the seeds of future wars.
• By restraining Russia and encouraging Austria in the Balkans, it fostered bitterness that eventually led to the formation of rival camps in Europe.
• The treaty’s provisions and the resulting animosities contributed to the Balkan wars of 1912 and 1913 and ultimately the First World War in 1914.