Educational Policy & Growth of Modern Education | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Introduction

Education plays a crucial role in shaping the future of a nation and its people. In India, the journey of education has seen significant changes, especially during the British rule. Let's explore the history of education in India, focusing on its evolution under British governance.

Education in India Before British Rule

• Before the British arrived, India had its own traditional systems of education. Gurukulas and Madrassas were the primary institutions where knowledge was imparted.
•  Gurukulas were ancient Indian schools where students lived with their teachers, learning various subjects, including philosophy, mathematics, and scriptures. Madrassas, on the other hand, were Islamic educational institutions that taught religious texts, language, and other subjects.
• These traditional systems were deeply rooted in Indian culture and catered to the needs of the society at that time. Education was imparted in a way that was relevant to the social and cultural context of the students.

Background of Education Development

During the initial 60 years of its rule in India, the East India Company, primarily a trading and profit-oriented entity, showed no interest in promoting education. Their focus was on finding a few knowledgeable Indians to assist in managing the land and understanding local customs and legal systems.

The introduction of Western education in India was largely facilitated by missionaries, who aimed to civilize and Christianize the Indian population. They established numerous educational centers as a means to this end.

Development of Education Under Company Rule

Charter Act of 1813

• The Charter Act of 1813 authorized missionaries to travel to India and promote education, marking a shift in the Company's responsibility towards education in India.
• A sum of one lakh rupees was allocated annually for the promotion of scientific knowledge and the revival and improvement of literature among the people in British territories in India.
• However, this amount was insufficient to meet the educational needs of the vast population, leading to slow educational progress due to inadequate funding.

Lord Macaulay's Minute, 1835

Lord Macaulay arrived in India on June 10, 1834, as a law member of the Governor General's Executive Council. His main task was to resolve the conflict between the Orientalists, who wanted to promote Eastern learning, and the Anglicizers, who advocated for Western education. 

Features of Lord Macaulay's Minute (1835):

• Emphasized promoting English education, focusing on European sciences and literature.
• Recommended ceasing public funding for Oriental works and learning.
• Proposed no stipends for students enrolling in new universities, though current scholars would continue receiving them.
• Approved by Lord Bentick, leading to the policy's adoption in 1835.
• Advocated for the exclusive use of public funds to educate Indians in English and Western knowledge.

Wood's Despatch (1854)

After the Charter Act of 1813, various educational experiments were conducted, and different agencies attempted to spread education in India, leading to several debates and controversies. A Committee was established under Sir Charles Wood to conduct this comprehensive survey of education in India. The report submitted on July 19, 1854, became known as Wood's Despatch.

Features :

• Primary Education: Promoted vernacular languages in primary schools and mandated education departments and government schools in each district.

• Higher Education: Advocated for Anglo-Vernacular and English education, with universities modeled after the University of London in Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta.

• Women’s Education: Encouraged the inclusion of women’s education at all levels.

• Educational Hierarchy: Proposed a structured system with primary schools in villages, Anglo-Vernacular high schools, district-level colleges, and Presidency town universities.

• Languages: Promoted vernacular languages for primary education to reflect local linguistic diversity.

• Teacher Training: Emphasized teacher training programs to improve education quality.

• Secular Education: Supported the adoption of secular education at all levels.

• Grants-in-Aid: Encouraged a grants-in-aid system to support private educational initiatives

Hunter Education Commission (1882-83)

• The Hunter Education Commission was established in 1882 to evaluate the effectiveness of Wood's Dispatch from 1854.
• Key Emphases: The Commission highlighted the importance of the state's role in enhancing and expanding primary and secondary education.
• Delegation of Authority: It recommended giving more authority to district and municipal boards in managing education.
• Types of Secondary Education: The Commission advocated for two forms of secondary education: literary education leading to university and vocational education aimed at commercial careers.

The Indian Universities Act, 1904

The Act brought all Indian universities under government control.

The key provisions of the Act included:

• Placing greater emphasis on study and research in universities, shifting focus away from revolutionary activities.
• Reducing the number of fellows, who would now be nominated by the government.
• Granting the government veto power over decisions made by university senates.
• Implementing stricter regulations for university affiliations.

Government Resolution on Education Policy 1913

• The government rejected the demand from national movement leaders for compulsory primary education in British India, as they did not want to take on the responsibility of mass education.
• However, the government did announce a future policy aimed at eradicating illiteracy.
• Provincial governments were encouraged to take responsibility for providing free elementary education to poorer and disadvantaged classes.
• The resolution also aimed to improve the quality of secondary education and encouraged private efforts in this regard.
• Additionally, it was decided that each province would have its own university.

Sadler University Commission (1917-19)

Purpose and Scope

• The commission was initially tasked with investigating the reasons behind Calcutta University's poor performance. However, it broadened its scope to review all universities across the country.

Features

• Recommended restructuring Calcutta University into a fully teaching university and establishing more residential and teaching universities, including one in Bangladesh.
• Advocated for minimal government interference in university affairs, proposing academic councils to replace the Syndicate and Senate for better governance.
• Suggested the appointment of a full-time, salaried vice-chancellor as the executive head of universities.
• Introduced honors courses and called for the formation of academic departments, boards of studies, and statutory bodies to streamline academic operations.
• Proposed the inclusion of specialized instruction in fields like engineering, agriculture, law, medicine, and technology, alongside the creation of an inter-university system for coordination.

Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919)

• Education was transferred to the provincial government as part of the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms.
• The recommendations of the Saddler Commission were handed over to the provincial government for implementation.
• This transfer of responsibility led to a financial crisis in the educational sector.

Hartog Committee (1929) and Dyarchy

• Primary Education Issues: The Hartog Committee highlighted significant problems in primary education, such as wastage, stagnation, and high dropout rates due to factors like seasonal illnesses, poverty, and caste restrictions.

• Recommendations for Primary Education: It recommended government oversight and regular inspections of schools, the introduction of practical subjects relevant to the local environment, and teacher training programs to improve standards.

• Secondary Education Recommendations: The committee suggested diversifying the secondary school curriculum, introducing vocational subjects, and offering alternative courses based on student aptitude.

• Higher Education Concerns: It found overcrowded institutions, poor-quality instruction, and inadequate resources and recommended creating associated institutions, improving university libraries, and offering honors courses.

• Focus on Women’s Education: The committee advocated for equal importance for boys' and girls' education, the establishment of girls' primary schools, and the inclusion of subjects like home science and hygiene in secondary education.

Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937)

• Proposed by Gandhiji and formulated by the Zakir Hussain Committee after a series of articles in the Harijan.
• Emphasized learning through activity and vocational education.
• Detailed plans, focusing on manual productive work, were prepared by the committee. However, the scheme could only be implemented after 1947 due to the resignation of Congress ministries.
• Stressed the inclusion of basic handicrafts in the syllabus, free and compulsory education for the first seven years, and the use of the mother tongue as the medium of instruction until class 7, followed by English from class 8 onward.

Sergeant Plan of Education

Sergeant Plan of Education. The Sergeant Plan was formulated in 1944 by the Central Advisory Board of Education.

Objective: To achieve educational standards comparable to England within 40 years.

Recommendations of Sergeant's Education Plan (1944)

• Pre-Primary Education: Provided education for children aged 3 to 6 years to promote early childhood development.

• Universal and Compulsory Primary Education: Proposed free and compulsory primary education for children aged 6-11 (junior basic) and 11-14 (senior basic), in line with the Wardha Scheme.

• Senior Basic Education: Suggested that senior basic education be the final stage for most students, ensuring completion of foundational education.

• High School Education: Envisioned two types of high schools—academic and technical—to cater to diverse educational needs.

• Focus on Post-War Educational Development: Emphasized the need for a comprehensive educational system in post-war India, addressing both basic and advanced levels of education.

Implementation: The plan, despite its ambition and comprehensiveness, did not provide a clear methodology for implementation.

Evaluation of British Policy on Education

•  British policy on education in India reveals that the government's efforts to expand modern education were driven by factors other than philanthropic motives. 
• The traditional system of Indian learning declined due to a lack of support, especially after 1844 when fluency in English became a requirement for government employment.
• Mass education was neglected, leading to widespread illiteracy and creating a significant linguistic and cultural divide between the educated elite and the masses.
•  Education became a privilege of the upper and wealthy classes, as well as urban dwellers, due to the necessity of payment for education.
• Women's education was largely overlooked because the government aimed to avoid offending orthodox sections of society. 
• Scientific and technical education received little attention, with only a few medical colleges and one engineering college accessible to Europeans and Eurasians by 1857.

The Role of Education in the Freedom Struggle

• Education became a powerful tool for awakening the masses and fostering a sense of nationalism. Reformers and freedom fighters understood the potential of education in bringing about social and political change.
• Leaders like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, and Mahatma Gandhi emphasized the importance of education in empowering people and spreading awareness about their rights and duties.
• Educational institutions became hubs for revolutionary ideas, and many freedom fighters emerged from these backgrounds. The Indian National Congress and other political organizations also stressed the need for educating the masses to strengthen the freedom movement.

Education after Independence

• Radhakrishnan Commission (1948): Established to assess university education, it recommended the implementation of 12 years of pre-university studies.

• Restructuring Higher Education: The commission suggested restructuring higher education to offer general, liberal, and vocational education with a focus on agriculture, law, medicine, and improvements in technical institutes like engineering.

• University Education for Administrative Services: It recommended excluding university education as a compulsory requirement for administrative services, making the system more flexible.

• Standardization of Exams: The commission introduced subject-wise exams for obtaining the first degree and emphasized the standardization of examination norms across universities.

• Formation of University Grants Commission (UGC): The commission's recommendation led to the establishment of the UGC in 1953 to oversee national education policies, while the 1968 resolution, based on the Kothari Commission, introduced the three-language formula for regional language promotion.

Conclusion

Before the British came to India, education was primarily focused on religious teachings, and society was plagued by various evils and superstitions. The British brought with them a more modern and rational education system, which gradually transformed people's thinking and played a significant role in eliminating several social ills in India.

• The journey of education in India, from traditional systems to modern education under British rule, reflects the changing dynamics of society and the impact of colonialism.
• Education, initially used as a tool for subjugation, eventually became a means of liberation and empowerment for the Indian populace.