Emergence of two Power Blocs: Confrontation through détente | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Confrontation through Détente (1962–79)

Détente, a French term meaning "a relaxation of tensions," refers to a period during the Cold War when relations between the United States and the Soviet Union improved. By the 1970s, both superpowers were interested in creating a more stable and predictable international system, marking the beginning of détente, which lasted from 1962 to 1979. This shift was influenced by the accumulation of nuclear arsenals and the fear of a catastrophic nuclear war, the horrors of the Vietnam War, and individual motivations for seeking détente.

Circumstances Leading to Détente

• The fear of nuclear war, particularly after the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, prompted the United States and the Soviet Union to engage in discussions.
• The Cuban Missile Crisis led to the establishment of the Washington-Moscow Hotline in 1963, facilitating direct communication between the leaders of both nations.
• Various treaties aimed at controlling nuclear weapons were signed, including the Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963), Outer Space Treaty (1967), and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968).
• Negotiations to control the arms race began in 1969 in Helsinki, Finland, culminating in the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) in 1972, a significant achievement in U.S.-Soviet relations.

Ostpolitik:

• Western European nations were concerned about being on the front lines in the event of a nuclear war.
• Neue Ostpolitik, or "New Eastern Policy," was introduced by Willy Brandt, the Chancellor of West Germany, who advocated for improved relations between West Germany and the USSR/East Germany.
• The Treaty of Moscow was signed between the USSR and West Germany, with West Germany recognizing East Germany and the post-World War II borders.
• The Hallstein Doctrine, a policy that severed diplomatic relations with states recognizing East Germany, was abandoned.

Vietnam War and U.S. Needs:

• Vietnam War + 1973 Oil Crisis = U.S. Economic Problems = Détente
• The Vietnam War and the 1973 Oil Crisis contributed to U.S. economic difficulties, including stagflation, which is characterized by high inflation and unemployment.
• The 1973 Oil Crisis, during which the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) imposed an embargo on the U.S. due to its support of Israel in the Yom Kippur War, significantly impacted the U.S. economy.
• The crisis made it advantageous for the U.S. to seek oil from the USSR rather than its traditional Middle Eastern partners.
• The Vietnam War also contributed to unemployment and involved substantial government expenditure.
• The challenging economic situation made the arms race more burdensome, prompting the U.S. to seek a freeze on the arms race through SALT I.
• Vietnam War = Reluctance to Engage Internationally = Détente
• The Vietnam War led to a reluctance to engage in international conflicts, influencing U.S. foreign policy towards détente.
• Factors such as economic costs, public discontent with the war, the Vietnam Syndrome (aversion to U.S. military involvement abroad), and the high human cost of the war (with 58,000 U.S. soldiers dead and 300,000 wounded) contributed to this shift.
• The high casualties and the perception that the U.S. could not win a war abroad led to a desire to disengage from foreign entanglements, paving the way for détente.
• There was a growing realization that a different approach to dealing with communism was necessary, as military power had proven ineffective in Vietnam.
• Some members of Congress even began discussing a return to "isolationism."

USSR Needs:

• The USSR was struggling to keep up with U.S. military spending and was experiencing economic stagnation.
• Reducing defense spending was crucial for the USSR to allocate more resources to improving living standards, both domestically and in satellite states, all of which were facing economic difficulties.
• Excessive investment in the military and heavy industry left the USSR weak in producing consumer goods and reliant on grain imports from the West.
• The U.S. had 50 times more computers than the USSR, highlighting the technological gap.
• Due to inferior technology, the USSR needed to import superior capital goods from the West, financing these purchases by selling fuel and raw materials to the U.S. to earn hard currency.
• With the U.S. negotiating with China, the USSR needed détente to avoid a potential two-front situation with the U.S. and China.

Key Events and Agreements:

• In May 1972, President Nixon became the first U.S. president to visit Moscow, where he and Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev signed several agreements.
• These agreements included measures to prevent accidental military clashes, arms control as recommended by the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I), cooperative research in various areas, including space exploration, and expanded commerce.
• The Helsinki Agreement of 1975 introduced the Declaration of Human Rights and the U.S. acceptance of communist borders in Eastern Europe.
• Other agreements included bans on nuclear tests in space and restrictions on small countries arming themselves with their own nuclear weapons.

End of Détente:

• With the election of Ronald Reagan, who emphasized military preparedness as central to U.S.-Soviet relations, détente as envisioned by Nixon came to an end.
• Détente collapsed by the end of the decade, particularly with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.

Shifts in International Relations:

• During the 1960s and 1970s, Cold War participants had to adapt to a more complex international landscape where the world was no longer divided into two clearly opposing blocs.
• Western Europe and Japan rapidly recovered from World War II and experienced strong economic growth in the 1950s and 1960s, while Eastern Bloc economies stagnated.
• The Cuban Missile Crisis marked the beginning of a new phase, with the Sino-Soviet split complicating relations within the Communist sphere and U.S. allies, particularly France, asserting greater independence.
• The Soviet Union faced challenges, including the suppression of the 1968 Prague Spring in Czechoslovakia and the U.S. defeat in the Vietnam War, which led to further adjustments in international relations.
• The 1973 oil crisis, along with the rise of Third World alignments such as OAPEC and the growing influence of OPEC and the Non-Aligned Movement, allowed less-powerful countries to assert their independence and resist pressure from either superpower.
• Moscow had to focus inwardly to address deep-seated economic problems, and Soviet leaders like Brezhnev and Kosygin embraced détente as a strategy during this time.
• China, feeling isolated and wary of U.S. intentions in Vietnam, sought better relations with the U.S. to counterbalance its worsening relations with the USSR.

Relationship between the USSR and the USA

1963-1972: Early Efforts at Cooperation:

• In 1963, the USSR and the USA established a 'hotline' telephone link and agreed to conduct only underground nuclear tests, marking a step towards improved communication and safety.
• In 1967, both nations signed an agreement banning the use of nuclear weapons in outer space, further demonstrating a commitment to controlling the arms race.

1972: Breakthrough with SALT I:

• The first major breakthrough came in 1972 with the signing of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I).
• This treaty was a result of discussions between US President Richard Nixon and Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev.
• SALT I aimed to limit the number of Anti-Ballistic Missiles (ABMs), Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs), and Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs) each side could possess.
• While it did not reduce the total number of weapons, it slowed the arms race.
• A key component of SALT I was the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, which limited the use of ABM systems designed to protect against missile-delivered nuclear weapons.

1972-1974: Strengthening Ties:

• During this period, Nixon and Brezhnev held three summit meetings to discuss further arms control and economic cooperation.
• The groundwork was laid for SALT II, and the USA began exporting wheat to Russia, strengthening economic ties.
• Nixon and Brezhnev declared a new era of "peaceful coexistence" and established the policy of détente, promoting cooperation between the superpowers.

1975: Helsinki Agreement:

• In July 1975, the USA, Canada, the USSR, and most European countries signed the Helsinki Agreement.
• This agreement recognized post-World War II European borders, including the division of Germany.
• Communist countries committed to respecting human rights, such as freedom of speech and the right to leave the country.

1979: Setbacks in Détente:

• Détente faced challenges in 1979 when NATO reacted to the deployment of 150 new Russian SS-20 missiles.
• NATO decided to deploy over 500 Pershing and Cruise missiles in Europe by 1983 as a deterrent against potential Russian aggression.
• Despite President Jimmy Carter's efforts to limit the arms race with the SALT II agreement in 1979, various global events, including the Iranian Revolution and Soviet actions in Afghanistan, undermined these efforts.

1980-1985: The Second Cold War:

• The early 1980s are often referred to as the 'second Cold War', with both superpowers building up their nuclear arsenals.
• US President Ronald Reagan approved the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), aimed at using space-based weapons to destroy ballistic missiles.

1985: Gorbachev and a New Era:

• Detente gained momentum again with the leadership of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev.
• In November 1985, Gorbachev met with Reagan in Geneva, where they jointly stated that 'nuclear war cannot be won and must never be fought'.

1986: Reykjavik Summit:

• In October 1986, Gorbachev invited Reagan to a summit in Reykjavik, proposing a 15-year plan to eliminate nuclear weapons.
• While they made progress, Reagan was not willing to abandon the SDI project.

1987: INF Treaty:

• At the Washington summit in December 1987, a historic breakthrough occurred with the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty.
• This treaty called for the elimination of all land-based intermediate-range nuclear weapons (300 to 3,000 miles range) over the next three years.
• It aimed to dismantle 436 American and 1,575 Soviet warheads, including missiles based in East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Western Europe.
• Despite not significantly reducing the total stockpile of nuclear weapons, the INF Treaty was a crucial step in arms control as it marked the first time any nuclear weapons were destroyed.

1988: Withdrawal from Afghanistan:

• By 1988, the USSR was facing difficulties in Afghanistan, where Soviet troops struggled against local guerrilla fighters.
• The Soviet involvement in Afghanistan became a drain on resources and a blow to prestige.
• In June 1988, Reagan visited Moscow to discuss the implementation of the INF Treaty and the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan.

Relationship between China and the USA

China and the USA had a very hostile relationship since the Korean War. The Americans supported Chiang Kai-shek and the Nationalists in Taiwan, while the Chinese backed Ho Chi Minh. However, things began to change due to the Sino-Soviet split.

1971: Ping-Pong Diplomacy:

• In 1971, China surprised the world by inviting an American table-tennis team to visit. This event, known as "Ping-Pong Diplomacy," helped improve relations between the two countries.

1972: Nixon's Historic Visit:

• In February 1972, President Richard Nixon made a groundbreaking visit to China, meeting with leaders Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai. This was the first time a U.S. president had visited the People's Republic of China (PRC).
• Nixon's visit significantly shifted the Cold War balance, aligning the PRC with the U.S. against the Soviet Union.

1978: Strengthening Ties:

• Relations improved further in 1978 when President Jimmy Carter decided to withdraw recognition of Nationalist China.
• The peak of the China-U.S. relationship came in early 1979 when Carter officially recognized the People's Republic of China, leading to the exchange of ambassadors.

1980s: Continued Cooperation:

• During the 1980s, good relations were maintained. China valued its detente with the U.S., especially due to its conflict with Vietnam, a Soviet ally.
• In 1985, an agreement on nuclear cooperation was signed.

1989: Tiananmen Square Incident:

• Relations took a drastic turn in June 1989 when the Chinese government used military force to disperse a student demonstration in Tiananmen Square, Beijing.
• The government feared that the demonstration could lead to a revolution threatening Chinese communism. The violent crackdown resulted in the deaths of at least a thousand students, with many more executed later.
• This incident drew widespread international condemnation and strained relations between China and the U.S. 

Relations between the USSR and China

Relations between the USSR and China worsened progressively after 1956.

The Chinese rejected Khrushchev's policies, especially his idea of ‘peaceful coexistence’ and his assertion that communism could be achieved through non-violent means. This view contradicted Lenin's principles, leading the Chinese to accuse the Russians of ‘revisionism’—altering Marx and Lenin's teachings for their own purposes. They were also displeased with Khrushchev's lenient approach towards the USA. In response, the Russians cut back on their economic assistance to China.

Besides the ideological dispute, there was also a border conflict. In the 19th century, Russia had annexed vast areas of Chinese land, which China now sought to reclaim. By the late 1970s, both Russia and China were competing for American support to lead global communism. The situation was further complicated when Vietnam sided with Russia. When China launched an attack on Vietnam in February 1979, relations hit a new low.

The Chinese invasion was partly in response to Vietnam's invasion of Cambodia in December 1978, which ousted the Khmer Rouge regime led by Pol Pot, who was backed by China. It was also driven by border disputes. After three weeks, Chinese forces withdrew.

In 1984, the Chinese listed their grievances against the USSR, which included:

• The presence of Soviet troops in Afghanistan.
• Soviet support for Vietnamese forces in Kampuchea.
• The Soviet military buildup along the Chinese borders in Mongolia and Manchuria.

Mikhail Gorbachev aimed to initiate a new phase in Sino-Russian relations. In July 1985, five-year agreements on trade and economic cooperation were signed, and regular interactions between the two governments became common. A formal reconciliation occurred in May 1989 during Gorbachev's visit to Beijing. That same year, Vietnam withdrew its troops from Kampuchea, further improving relations with China.

Confrontations

1. French NATO withdrawal

• The early history of NATO saw a breach in its unity, particularly during Charles de Gaulle's presidency in France from 1958 onwards.
• De Gaulle expressed dissatisfaction with the United States' dominant role in NATO and what he perceived as a special relationship between the United States and the United Kingdom.
• In a memorandum to President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Prime Minister Macmillan in September 1958, de Gaulle proposed a tripartite directorate to give France equal footing with the U.S. and U.K. and suggested expanding NATO's coverage to include areas of interest to France, such as French Algeria.
• Feeling that his proposals were not adequately addressed, de Gaulle initiated the development of an independent French nuclear deterrent and withdrew France from NATO's military structures in 1966, expelling NATO troops from French soil.

2. Czechoslovakia invasion (1968)

• In 1968, Czechoslovakia experienced a period of political liberalization known as the Prague Spring, which included the “Action Program” that proposed various reforms such as increased freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and the possibility of a multi-party government.
• The Prague Spring began with the election of Alexander Dubcek as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia and lasted for four months until the Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact members invaded to suppress the reforms.
• On August 3, 1968, at a meeting in Bratislava, Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev read a letter from some Czechoslovakian Communists requesting assistance, leading to the announcement of the Brezhnev Doctrine, which asserted that the USSR would not allow any Eastern European country to abandon Communism.
• On August 20, 1968, the Soviet Army, along with most of their Warsaw Pact allies, invaded Czechoslovakia.
• The Czechoslovakians did not resist violently; instead, they greeted the soldiers with flowers and peaceful protests.
• The invasion was followed by a mass emigration wave and sparked strong protests from countries like Yugoslavia, Romania, and China, as well as from Western European communist parties.

Causes of the Prague Spring:

• The policy of détente encouraged the uprising, as seen in Romania's break from Russian control and improvement of relations with the West.
• The Czechs resented Russian control, particularly over the economy, which had led to poverty, and the lack of freedom and censorship.
• Some Czechs believed that the USA would support them.

Effects of the invasion of Czechoslovakia:

• Czechoslovakia was reasserted under communist control, with Russian troops remaining in the country.
• Many leaders of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSC) and directors of various firms, especially publishing companies, were removed from their positions, and 47 anti-communists were arrested.
• Russia maintained its control behind the Iron Curtain, enacting the Brezhnev Doctrine, which justified intervention in any country attempting to replace Marxism–Leninism with capitalism.
• The Brezhnev Doctrine asserted that Eastern European countries would not be allowed to abandon communism, even at the risk of a third world war.
• The invasion heightened tensions in the Cold War, shocking people in the West as well as many communist nations, particularly Romania and Yugoslavia.

3. Third World escalations

American occupation of the Dominican Republic (1965-1966), code named Operation Power Pack:

• In late April 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson deployed approximately 22,000 troops to the Dominican Republic for a year-long occupation under Operation Power Pack, citing concerns over a potential Cuban-style revolution in Latin America.
• Presidential elections held in 1966 during the occupation resulted in a victory for the conservative Joaquin Balaguer.
• Activists of the Dominican Revolutionary Party faced violent harassment by the Dominican police and armed forces.

The Indonesian killings of 1965–1966:

• In Indonesia, General Suharto led a hardline anti-communist campaign to establish a “New Order” by ousting President Sukarno after 22 years in power.
• Between 1965 and 1966, the military conducted mass killings of an estimated half-million members and sympathizers of the Indonesian Communist Party and other leftist organizations.

Vietnam War:

• The scale of American involvement in the Vietnam War increased as President Johnson deployed around 575,000 troops to combat the Communist National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) and their North Vietnamese allies.
• Despite being one of the world’s most powerful superpowers, the U.S. faced a humiliating defeat at the hands of one of the world’s poorest nations by 1975.
• North Vietnam received Soviet support and approval for its war efforts beginning in 1959, with China also providing military and humanitarian assistance.

1973 Chilean coup d’état:

• In Chile, Salvador Allende, the Socialist Party candidate, became the first democratically elected Marxist president in the Americas after winning the 1970 presidential election.
• The CIA worked to undermine Allende’s domestic support, contributing to unrest that led to General Augusto Pinochet overthrowing Allende on September 11, 1973.
• Pinochet established a military dictatorship, reversing Allende's economic reforms and suppressing leftist opponents.

Middle East: Six-Day War (Third Arab–Israeli War):

• The Middle East remained a contentious area, particularly with Egypt, which was heavily reliant on Soviet arms and assistance. The Soviet Union felt obligated to support Egypt in the 1967 Six-Day War against Israel.
• The war took place from June 5 to 10, 1967, between Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria.
• Relations between Israel and its neighbors had been tense since the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, and tensions escalated leading up to June 1967.
• In response to the mobilization of its Arab neighbors, Israel launched preemptive strikes on June 5, capturing Sinai from Egypt, East Jerusalem and the rest of the West Bank from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria.
• The UN Security Council called for a cease-fire on June 7, which was accepted by Israel, Jordan, Egypt, and Syria.
• A ceasefire was signed on June 11, with Israeli control expanding significantly, increasing its defensibility, as later demonstrated in the Yom Kippur War.
• The war had devastating consequences for the Arab countries involved. Egyptian President Nasser initially announced his resignation on June 9 but was persuaded to stay in office due to public demonstrations.
• In Israel, the war established its dominance as the region's preeminent military power.
• The Six-Day War also marked the beginning of a new phase in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, creating hundreds of thousands of refugees and bringing over one million Palestinians under Israeli rule.

Middle East: Yom Kippur War (1973 Arab–Israeli War):

• In the Middle East, despite Egypt's shift from a pro-Soviet to a pro-American orientation under Anwar El Sadat in 1972, the threat of imminent Soviet intervention on Egypt's behalf during the 1973 Yom Kippur War prompted a significant American military mobilization, straining détente.
• The Yom Kippur War was fought from October 6 to 25, 1973, by a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria against Israel. Egypt aimed to expel Israeli forces occupying Sinai.
• American mobilization during the war heightened tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, leading to a second ceasefire imposed cooperatively on October 25 to end the conflict.
• The war had significant implications for Israel, revealing that its military dominance over Arab states was not guaranteed. This realization paved the way for the subsequent peace process.
• The 1978 Camp David Accords resulted from this process, leading to the return of Sinai to Egypt and establishing normalized relations—the first peaceful recognition of Israel by an Arab country. Egypt's drift away from the Soviet Union culminated in its complete departure from the Soviet sphere of influence.

Middle East: South Yemen:

• The Soviet Union successfully established close relations with communist South Yemen, as well as with the nationalist governments of Algeria and Iraq.
• Indirect Soviet support in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict included backing for Yasser Arafat’s Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), founded in 1964 to liberate Palestine from Israeli control.

Middle East: The Iraqi Ba’athist coup of 1968 (The 17 July Revolution):

• The 1968 Iraqi Ba’athist coup, led by General Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, was a bloodless takeover of the Iraqi Regional Branch of the Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party.
• Major participants included Saddam Hussein, who later became President of Iraq, and Salah Omar al-Ali, a Ba’athist dissident.
• The coup disrupted the US-sponsored security system established during the Cold War in the Middle East, as any enemy of the Baghdad regime became a potential US ally.
• From 1973 to 1975, the CIA collaborated with the Iranian government to finance and arm Kurdish rebels during the Kurdish–Iraqi War to weaken al-Bakr's regime.

Ethiopia and Somalia:

• In Africa, the 1969 coup led by Mohamed Siad Barre in Somalia established the socialist Somali Democratic Republic, with the Soviet Union pledging support.
• The pro-American Ethiopian Emperor was ousted in a 1974 coup by the Derg, a radical group of army officers led by the pro-Soviet Mariam, who fostered ties with Cuba and the Soviet Union.
• The Ethiopian-S

Limitations of Détente

• The Non-Proliferation Treaty failed to prevent countries like China(and possibly South Africa and Israel) from developing nuclear weapons.
• Both Russia and America did not adhere to the SALT I agreement, and neither side reduced their conventional weapons. Subsequent discussions were less effective, and the SALT II Treaty in 1979 made minimal progress.
• During the Arab-Israeli War of 1973, America backed Israel, while Russia supported Egypt and Syria.
• The Helsinki Agreement yielded little, as it merely reinforced the Iron Curtain, and Russia disregarded its commitments regarding human rights.
• Table tennis and space meetings were merely one-time propaganda efforts.
• Brezhnev asserted that Communists would continue to seek the downfall of capitalism. Some historians argue that Nixon's visit to China was aimed at creating a rift between Russia and China.