Emile Durkheim: Religion & Society | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Religion & Society

• In The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, published in 1912, Emile Durkheim presented what is probably the most influential interpretation of religion from a functionalist perspective. Durkheim argues that all societies divide the world into two categories, the sacred’ and the profane’, or more simply, the sacred and the non-sacred. Religion is based upon this division. It is ‘a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things, that is to say things set apart and forbidden’.
• It is important to realize that, ‘By sacred things one must not understand simply those personal things which are called gods or spirits; a rock, a tree, a spring, a pebble, a piece of wood, a house, in a word anything can be sacred’. There is nothing about the particular qualities of a pebble or a tree which makes them sacred. Therefore sacred things must be symbols, they must represent something. To understand the role of religion in society, the relationship between sacred symbols and that which they represent must be established.
• Durkheim uses the religion of various groups of Australian aborigines to develop his argument. He sees their religion, which he calls totemism, as the simplest and most basic form  of religion. Aborigine society is divided into several clans. A clan is like a large extended family with its members sharing certain duties and obligations. For example, clans have a rule of exogamy members may not marry within the clan. Clan members have a duty to aid and assist each other; they join together to mourn the death of one of their number and to revenge a member who has been wronged by someone from another clan. Each clan has a totem, usually an animal or a plant. The totem is a symbol. It is the emblem of the clan, ‘It is its flag; it is the sign by which each clan distinguishes itself from ail others’.
• However, the totem is more than this, it is a sacred symbol. It is carved on the bullroarer, the most sacred object in aborigine ritual. The totem is The outward and visible form of the totemic principle or god . Durkheim argues that if the totem, Is at once the symbol of god and of the society, is that not because the god and the society are only one? Thus he suggests that in worshipping god, men are in fact worshipping society. Society is the real object of religious veneration.
• How does man come to worship society? Sacred things are considered superior in dignity and power to profane things and particularly to man’. In relation to the sacred, man’s position is inferior and dependent. This relationship between man and sacred things is exactly the relationship between man and society. Society is more important and powerful than the individual. Durkheim argues that, ‘Primitive man comes to view society as something sacred because he is utterly dependent on it’. But why does man not simply worship society itself ? Why does he invent a sacred symbol like a totem? Because, Durkheim argues, ‘it is easier for him to visualize and direct his feelings of awe toward a symbol than towards so complex a thing as a clan’.
• Durkheim argues that social life is impossible without the shared values and moral beliefs which form the ‘collective conscience’. In their absence, there would be no social order, social control, social solidarity or cooperation. In short, there would be no society. Religion reinforces the collective conscience. The worship of society strengthens the values and moral beliefs which form the basis of social life. By defining them as sacred, religion provides them with greater power to direct human action.
• The attitude of respect towards the sacred is the same attitude applied to social duties and obligations. In worshipping society, men are, in effect, recognizing the importance of the social group and their dependence upon it. In this way religion strengthens the unity of the group, it promotes social solidarity. Durkheim emphasizes the importance of collective worship. The social group comes together in religious rituals infused with drama and reverence. Together, its members express their faith in common values and beliefs. In this highly charged atmosphere of collective worship, the integration of society is strengthened. Members of society express, communicate and comprehend the moral bonds which unite them.
• Durkheim’s ideas remain influential, though they are not without criticism. Some anthropologists have argued that he is not justified in seeing totemism as a religion. Most sociologists believe that Durkheim has overstated his case. Whilst agreeing that religion is important for promoting social solidarity and reinforcing social values, they would not support the view that religion is the worship of society.
• Durkheim’s views on religion are more relevant to small, non-literate societies, where there is a close integration of culture and social institutions, where work, leisure, education and family life tend to merge, and where members share a common belief and value system. They are less relevant to modern societies, which have many subcultures, social and ethnic groups, specialized organisations and a range of religious beliefs, practices and institutions.

The Sacred and The Profane

The concepts of sacred and profane' are central to Durkheim s theory of religion. According t o him, all aspects of human experience can be divided into  two  radically  and diametrically  opposed categories : the sacred and the profane.

What is the nature of the Sacred?

Durkheim says that the sacred is ideal and transcends everyday existence; it is extra-ordinary, potentially dangerous, awe-inspiring, fear-inducing. The sacred, for Durkheim, refers to things set apart by man, including religious beliefs, rites, duties, or anything socially defined as requiring special religious treatment. The sacred has extra-ordinary, supernatural, and often dangerous qualities and can usually be approached only through some form of ritual, such as prayer, incantation, or ceremonial cleansing. Almost anything can be sacred: a god, a rock; a cross, the moon, the earth, a king, a tree, an animal or bird, or a symbol, such as Swastik. These are sacred only because some community has marked them as sacred. Once established as' sacred' , however, they become symbols of religious beliefs, sentiments and practices.

What is the Profane?

• The profane is mundane, that is, anything ordinary. It is a part of the ordinary realm rather than the supernatural world. The profane or ordinary or unholy' embraces those ideas, persons, practices, and things that are regarded with an everyday attitude of commonness, utility and familiarity . It is that which is not supposed to come into contact with or take precedence over the sacred. The unholy or the ‘profane is also believed to contaminate the ‘holy’ or ‘sacred’. It is the denial or sub -ordination of the holy in some way. The attitudes and behaviour toward ft are charged with negative emotions and hedged about by strong taboos -{Kingsley Davis.) A rock, the moon, a king, a tree or a symbol may also be considered profane. It means Something becomes sacred or profane only when it is socially defined as such by a community of believers.
• The sacred and the profane are closely related because of the highly emotional attitude towards them. The distinction between the two is not very much clear, but ambiguous. As Durkheim has pointed out, The circle of sacred objects cannot be determined, then, once and for all. Its extent varies indefinitely according to different religions . The significance of the sacred lies in the fact of its distinction from the profane: The sacred thing is par excellence that which profane should not touch and cannot touch with impurity . Man always draws this distinction of the two orders in different times and places. Participation in the sacred order, for example, in rituals and ceremonies, gives a special social prestige, which actually reveals one of the social functions of religion. Mechanisms are established by all religions for keeping these two worlds (sacred and profane) from communication with one another. One result of this segregation is that the sacred cannot be questioned or challenged by the profane. The sacred Can remain fixed or stable to the degree that it succeeds in insulating itself from the secular or profane. Breaches of this segregation are treated as sacrilegious or heretical and may be dealt with by a wide range of sanctions -Bernard S. Philips writes in his book, ‘Sociology Social Structure and Change'.

Nature and Qualities of the Sacred

• Metta Spencer and Alex Inkeles have enlisted seven qualities of the sacred as described by Durkheim. They are :
  • The sacred is recognised as a power or force,
  • It is characterized by ambiguity in that, it is both physical and moral, human and cosmic, positive and negative, attractive and repugnant, helpful and dangerous to men,
  • It is non-utilitarian,
  • It is non-empirical
  • It does not involve knowledge of any rational or scientific character,
  • It strengthens and supports worshippers, and
  • It makes moral demand on the believer and worshipper.
• The sacred quality is not intrinsic to objects but is conferred on them by religious thought and feeling. The sacred does not help one to manipulate natural forces and is useless in practical sen se. It is not even an experience based on knowledge and the senses, but involves a definite break with the everyday world .
• God as Sacred: The sacred may be a supernatural being, that is, god. Those who believe in one god are monotheists. More than 985 million Christians, 14.5 million Jews and 471 million Muslims are monotheists. Those who worship more than one god are polytheists, say, the Hindus, whose number exceeds 472 millions.
• Ghost as Sacred: Gods are not alone among the sacred. Many worship the sacred ghost or ancestor spirit. Such spirits are also believed to possess superhuman qualities. But they are of human origin rather than of divine. Shintoism, for example, with its more than 60 million followers (mostly found in Japan) is based on reverence towards family ancestors.
• Moral or Philosophical Principle as Sacred: A moral or philosophical principle can also be sacred. For example, the Asian religions such as Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism-all stress the importance of certain ethical and spiritual ideals. Buddhism  is more concerned with Buddha s message of four noble truths than with him as the god. Similarly, more importance is laid on the Eight-fold path ' to attain nirvana a state of spiritual detachment.

  Totem as the Sacred : Totems are another example of Durkheim s sacred things . The totemic objectan animal or plant-is worshipped by primitive people all over the world. The totem is a symbol, a treasury of deep group-based sentiments and feelings. It is worshipped as a god or as an ancestor, or both, and it generally possesses some special quality or significance for the religious community.

  Supernatural Force as Sacred: A supernatural force is still another example of a sacred thing although it has no shape of its own.
  Example: On certain islands of Oceania, a warrior successful in battle while using a particular spear will attribute his victory to 'mana' -a supernatural force that entered his spear. The supernatural force, on the whole, may be good or bad.

• Thus, whether be it a force, or a god, a ghost, a moral principle, or a totemic object-all are elements of Durkheim s definition of religion. All are forms of the sacred and all bear witness to the existence of religious behaviour.

• "To what do the sacred symbols of religious belief and practice refer? — Durkheim asks. Durkheim is of the opinion that they cannot refer to the external environment or to individual human nature but only to the moral reality of society. The source and object of religion are the collective life; the sacred is at bottom society personified -Dr. Timasheff

• Thus, according to Durkheim, man’s attitudes towards God and society are more or less similar. Both “ inspire the sensation of divinity, both possess moral authority and stimulate devotion, self-sacrifice and exceptional individual behaviour. The individual who feels dependent on some external moral power is not, therefore, a victim of hallucination but a member of and responding to society itself. Durkheim concludes that the substantial function of religion is the creation, reinforcement and maintenance of social solidarity. So long as society persists so will religion . -Dr. Timasheff