Emile Durkheim: Suicide | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Suicide

• It has been suggested that Durkheim’s study of suicide is the paradigmatic example of how a sociologist should connect theory and research (Merton, 1968). Indeed, Durkheim makes it clear in the “Preface” that he intended this study not only to contribute to the understanding of a particular social problem, but also to serve as an example of his new sociological method.
• Durkheim chose to study suicide because it is a relatively concrete and specific phenomenon for which there were comparatively good data available. However, Durkheim’s most important reason for studying suicide was to prove the power of the new science of sociology. Suicide is generally considered to be one of the most private and personal acts. Durkheim believed that if he could show that sociology had a role to play in explaining such a seemingly individualistic act as suicide, it would be relatively easy to extend sociology’s domain to phenomena that are much more readily seen as open to sociological analysis.
• As a sociologist, Durkheim was not concerned with studying why any specific individual committed suicide. That was to be left to the psychologists. Instead, Durkheim was interested in explaining differences in suicide rates; that is, he was interested in why one group had a higher rate of suicide than did another. Psychological or biological factors may explain why a particular individual in a group commits suicide, but Durkheim assumed that only social facts could explain why one group had a higher rate of suicide than did another.
  

Durkheim's Approach to Evaluating Suicide Rates

• Émile Durkheim, a prominent sociologist, proposed two interrelated methods for evaluating suicide rates. One method involves comparing different societies or types of collectivities, while the other focuses on examining changes in the suicide rate within the same collectivity over time. Whether cross-culturally or historically, the underlying logic remains consistent. Durkheim believed that variations in suicide rates between groups or across time periods could be attributed to differences in sociological factors, particularly social currents.
• Durkheim acknowledged that individuals may have personal reasons for committing suicide, but he argued that these reasons are not the fundamental cause. Instead, he viewed them as indicators of the individual's vulnerabilities, where external social currents exert their influence most easily. 

He emphasized that these individual reasons are not part of the social current itself and, therefore, do not help in understanding the broader sociological factors at play.

• Testing and Rejecting Alternative Causes: In his seminal work "Suicide," Durkheim began by testing and rejecting various alternative explanations for the causes of suicide. Among the factors he considered and dismissed were individual psychopathology, alcoholism, race, heredity, and climate. While not all of Durkheim's arguments are universally convincing, his methodological approach of empirically dismissing what he deemed extraneous factors is significant. By doing so, he aimed to identify the most important causal variables influencing suicide rates.
• Durkheim and Gabriel Tarde's Debate: Contemporary to Durkheim, the French social psychologist Gabriel Tarde proposed that individuals commit suicide and engage in various actions primarily due to imitation of others. This social-psychological perspective posed a significant challenge to Durkheim's emphasis on social facts. In response, Durkheim sought to discredit Tarde's view by highlighting the limitations of imitation as a causal factor.
• For instance, Durkheim argued that if imitation were a crucial factor in suicide rates, nations bordering a country with a high suicide rate would also exhibit high rates. However, empirical data did not support this correlation. While Durkheim acknowledged that some individual suicides might result from imitation, he regarded it as a minor influence with negligible impact on overall suicide rates.
• Social Facts and Collective Sentiments: Durkheim ultimately concluded that the key factors influencing differences in suicide rates lie in variations at the level of social facts. Different groups possess distinct collective sentiments, which give rise to different social currents. These social currents, in turn, significantly impact individual decisions regarding suicide. In essence, shifts in collective sentiments lead to changes in social currents, which subsequently result in variations in suicide rates.

The Four Types of Suicide

Durkheim's theory of suicide becomes clearer when we examine the connection between the types of suicide and his two social facts: integration and regulation. Integration refers to the strength of an individual's attachment to society, while regulation pertains to the level of external constraint imposed on individuals. Durkheim considered these factors as continuous variables, suggesting that suicide rates increase when either integration or regulation is too low or too high. This leads to the identification of four types of suicide:

• Altruistic Suicide: Occurs when integration is high.
• Egoistic Suicide: Results from low integration.
• Fatalistic Suicide: Associated with high regulation.
• Anomic Suicide: Linked to low regulation.

Egoistic Suicide

Definition: Egoistic suicide is characterized by a lack of integration between the individual and the larger social unit.

Key Points:

• Cause: When individuals feel disconnected from society due to weak integration, they are more likely to experience feelings of isolation and disconnection.
• Role of Society: Durkheim believed that the best aspects of human beings, such as morality, values, and sense of purpose, come from society. A well-integrated society provides these essential elements and offers moral support to its members.
• Impact of Disintegration: Societal disintegration leads to currents of depression and disillusionment, where individuals feel a sense of futility, and morality becomes a personal choice. In contrast, strongly integrated groups offer protective social currents that discourage egoistic suicide.
• Religious Influence: Durkheim argued that religion can protect individuals from self-destructive tendencies. However, not all religions offer the same level of protection. Religions that emphasize individual faith over community, such as certain Protestant denominations, may provide less protection against suicide.
• Statistical Findings: Durkheim's statistics indicated that suicide rates are higher among unmarried individuals who are less integrated into families. Conversely, suicide rates decrease during national crises like wars and revolutions when social causes and fervor give individuals a greater sense of purpose.
• Individualism vs. Collectivity: Even in cases of egoistic suicide, where individuals may seem free from social constraints, Durkheim emphasized the influence of collective forces. Excessive individualism can lead to depression and melancholy, highlighting the enduring impact of social facts on individual behavior.

Altruistic Suicide

Definition: Altruistic suicide occurs when individuals are compelled to take their own lives due to excessively strong social integration.

Key Points:

• Cause: In altruistic suicide, individuals feel an overwhelming sense of duty or obligation to commit suicide, often due to the immense pressure exerted by the group or society to which they belong.
• Examples: Notable instances of altruistic suicide include the mass suicide of followers of Reverend Jim Jones in Jonestown, Guyana, in 1978, where individuals took poisoned drinks due to their extreme integration into Jones's community. Similarly, acts of martyrdom, such as those seen during the September 11 terrorist attacks, exemplify altruistic suicide, where individuals believe it is their duty to sacrifice themselves for a greater cause.
• Military Context: In military settings, where integration is exceptionally strong, individuals may feel compelled to commit suicide over minor failures, perceiving that their actions have brought disgrace to the entire group.
• Emotional Drivers: While egoistic suicide is driven by despair and depression, altruistic suicide is fueled by hope and the belief in a noble purpose beyond this life. When integration is low, individuals may take their lives due to a lack of greater purpose, whereas high integration can lead individuals to sacrifice themselves in the name of a greater good.

Anomic Suicide

Definition: Anomic suicide is more likely to occur when societal regulation is disrupted, leading to dissatisfaction among individuals due to a lack of control over their passions.

Key Points:

• Disruption Effects: Anomic suicide can arise from both positive (e.g., economic boom) and negative (e.g., economic depression) disruptions. Such disruptions weaken the collective's ability to regulate individual behaviors, leaving people in situations where old norms no longer apply, and new norms have yet to be established.
• Economic Depression: In cases like economic depression, the closure of a factory due to the downturn may result in job loss, severing the individual from the regulatory influence of the job and other structures like family, religion, and state. This disconnection renders individuals vulnerable to anomic currents.
• Economic Boom: During economic booms, sudden success can lead individuals away from traditional structures, prompting them to change jobs, relocate, or even find new partners. These changes disrupt existing regulatory frameworks and expose individuals to anomic social currents. In boom periods, individuals may feel liberated from regulations, leading to unchecked passions and desires.
• Impact of Deregulation: Durkheim's views on anomic suicide align with the idea that deregulation of social life can heighten rates of anomic suicide. Freed from external constraints, individuals may become slaves to their passions, engaging in a range of destructive behaviors, including self-harm.

Fatalistic Suicide

Definition: Fatalistic suicide occurs in situations where societal regulation is excessive, leading to a sense of hopelessness and oppression.

Key Points:

• Cause: Fatalistic suicide is more likely when individuals experience futures that are ruthlessly constrained and their passions are violently suppressed by oppressive discipline.
• Example: The classic example of fatalistic suicide is the slave who takes his own life due to the hopelessness associated with the strict regulation of every aspect of his existence. Excessive regulation and oppression can unleash currents of melancholy, contributing to a rise in fatalistic suicide rates.
• Social Currents: Durkheim argued that social currents, including egoism, altruism, anomie, and fatalism, influence changes in suicide rates. Individual suicides are shaped by these underlying currents, which are more than just the sum of individual actions. These currents are sui generis forces that dominate individual decisions.
• Stability of Suicide Rates: Durkheim's perspective helps explain the stability of suicide rates within particular societies. The influence of social currents is crucial in understanding why suicide rates remain consistent over time within specific social contexts.

Suicide Rates and Social Reform