Environment & Ecology - 3 | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly - UPSC PDF Download

Sustainable Cities India Program

Why in News?

• The ‘Sustainable Cities India’ intends to enable cities to decarbonise in a systematic and sustainable way that will reduce emissions and deliver resilient and equitable urban ecosystems.
• This initiative is in synergy with India’s commitment to turn net zero by 2070 as a climate mitigation response at COP26.

What are the Key Points of ‘Sustainable Cities India Program’?

• The program aims to create an enabling environment for cities to generate decarbonization solutions across the energy, transport, and the built environment sectors.
• The Forum and NIUA will adapt the Forum’s City Sprint process and Toolbox of Solutions for decarbonization in the context of five to seven Indian cities across two years.
• City Sprint Process: The City Sprint process is a series of multi-sectoral, multi-stakeholder workshops involving business, government, and civil society leaders to enable decarbonization, especially through clean electrification and circularity.
• Toolbox of Solutions: It provides a digital platform containing over 200 examples of clean electrification, efficiency and smart infrastructure best practices and case studies across buildings, energy systems and mobility from over 110 cities around the world.

What is the Need for Decarbonisation?

• As per the World Economic Forum’s Global Risks Report 2022, densely populated countries that are highly dependent on agriculture, such as India, are especially vulnerable to climate insecurity.  Decarbonization in cities is a real opportunity to keep global warming well below 2°C and cities in India can make an enormous contribution in reaching this goal.
• The World Economic Forum’s Net Zero Carbon Cities’ mission is to create an enabling environment for clean electrification and circularity, resulting in urban decarbonization and resilience.
• The program aims to do this by fostering public-private collaboration to bridge the gap across the energy, built environment and transport sectors.

What is NIUA?

• Established in 1976, the National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) is India’s leading national think tank on urban planning and development.
• As a hub for the generation and dissemination of cutting-edge research in the urban sector, NIUA seeks to provide innovative solutions to address the challenges of a fast urbanizing India, and pave the way for more inclusive and sustainable cities of the future.

What Initiatives are Taken by Government of India’s for Urban Development?

• Smart Cities Mission.
• Atal Mission for Urban Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT).
• Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Urban (PMAY-U).
• Integrated Command and Control Centres (ICCCs).
• Climate Smart Cities Assessment Framework 2.0.
• TULIP-The Urban Learning Internship Program.

Carbon Capture and Utilisation Technologies

Why in News?

• According to a study conducted by Radboud University, most Carbon Capture and Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) technologies, which suck carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and convert it into fuel or other valuable products, might fail to help the world reach Net Zero emissions by 2050.
• The study noted that a majority of these systems are energy intensive and the resultant product can also release CO2  into the atmosphere.
• ‘Net zero emissions’ refers to achieving an overall balance between greenhouse gas emissions produced and greenhouse gas emissions taken out of the atmosphere.

What are CCUS?

• Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) encompasses methods and technologies to remove CO₂ from the flue gas and from the atmosphere, followed by recycling the CO₂ for utilization and determining safe and permanent storage options.
• CO₂  captured using CCUS technologies is converted into fuel (methane and methanol), refrigerants and building materials. The captured gas is used directly in fire extinguishers, pharma, food and beverage industries as well as the agricultural sector.
• CCUS technologies can play an important role in meeting net zero targets, including as one of few solutions to tackle emissions from heavy industry and to remove carbon from the atmosphere.
• CCUS is considered an important tool to help countries halve their emissions by 2030 and reach net-zero by 2050. These goals are crucial to meet the Paris Agreement targetsfor restricting global warming to 2 degrees Celsius (°C), and preferable to 1.5°C, over preindustrial levels.

What are Applications of CCUS?
Mitigating Climate Change: Despite the adoption of alternative energy sources and energy efficient systems to reduce the rate of CO₂ emissions, the cumulative amount of CO₂ in the atmosphere needs to be reduced to limit the detrimental impacts of climate change.

• Agriculture: Capturing CO₂  from biogenic sources such as plants and soil to boost crop growth in a greenhouse could work.
• Industrial Use: Combining CO₂ with steel slag - an industrial byproduct of the steel manufacturing process — to make construction materials compatible with the Paris Agreement goals.
• Enhanced Oil Recovery: CCU is already making inroads into India. For instance, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation signed a MoU with Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL) for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) by injecting CO₂

What are the Challenges associated with CCUS?

• Expensive: Carbon capture involves the development of sorbents that can effectively bind to the CO₂ present in flue gas or the atmosphere, which is expensive.
• Lesser Demand for Recycled CO₂: Converting CO₂ into useful chemicals of commercial importance, or utilizing CO₂ for oil extraction or remediation of alkaline industrial wastes, would add economic value to this greenhouse gas. However, the demand for CO₂ is limited compared to the vast amount of CO₂ that needs to be removed from the atmosphere, to reduce the detrimental environmental impacts of climate change

Saltwater Crocodile

Why in News?

What do we know about the Saltwater Crocodile?

Habitat

• The ‘saltie’ is today found in three locations in India — the Sundarbans, Bhitarkanika National Park and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.  It is one of the three crocodiles native to the Indian Subcontinent, along with the mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) and the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus).
• It is also found in Bangladesh, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Australia and the Solomon Islands.
• During antiquity the species’ range extended from the Seychelles and Kerala, India in the west through to southeastern China, Palau and Vanuatu in the east.

Threats

• Habitat destruction, fragmentation, and transformation, fishing activities and use of crocodile parts for medicinal purposes.

What is the protection Status of Saltwater Crocodiles?

• IUCN List of Threatened Species: Least Concern
• CITES: Appendix I (except the populations of Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, which are included in Appendix II).
• Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I

World Energy Transitions Outlook 2022

Why in News?

• The Berlin Energy Transition Dialogue (BETD) has become a leading international forum for key stakeholders of the energy sector.

What is Energy Transition?

• Energy transition refers to the global energy sector’s shift from fossil-based systems of energy production and consumption — including oil, natural gas and coal — to renewable energy sources like wind and solar, as well as lithium-ion batteries.

What is the Purpose of the Outlook?

• The Outlook sets out priority areas and actions based on available technologies that must be realised by 2030 to achieve net zero emissions by mid-century.
• It also takes stock of progress across all energy uses to date, which shows that the current pace and scale of the renewables-based transition is inadequate.
• It provides in-depth analysis of two areas particularly relevant for the decarbonisation of end-use sectors: electrification and bioenergy.
• It also explores the socio-economic impacts of the 1.5°C pathway (under Paris Agreement) and suggests ways to speed progress towards universal access to clean energy (renewable energy).

What are the Findings of the Outlook?

• Global annual additions of renewable power will triple by 2030 as recommended by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
  At the same time, coal power will have to resolutely be replaced, fossil fuel assets phased out and infrastructure upgraded.
• The Outlook sees electrification and efficiency as key drivers of the energy transition, enabled by renewables, hydrogen, and sustainable biomass.
• End-use decarbonisation will take centre-stage with many solutions available through electrification, green hydrogen, and the direct use of renewables.
• High fossil fuel prices, energy security concerns and the urgency of climate change underscore the pressing need to move faster to a clean energy system

What are the Recommendations?

• Short-term interventions addressing the current energy crisis must be accompanied by a steadfast focus on mid- and long-term goals of the energy transition.
• Renewables will have to scale-up massively across all sectors from 14% of total energy today to around 40% in 2030.
• The largest energy consumers and carbon emitters will have to implement the most ambitious plans and investments by 2030.
• Countries need to set more ambitious targets and implement measures to ramp up energy efficiency and deployment of renewables.
• To fulfill the 1.5°C Scenario, the electricity sector will have to be thoroughly decarbonised by mid-century, with solar and wind leading the transformation.

What is the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)?

• It is an intergovernmental organisation, it was officially founded in Bonn, Germany, in January 2009.
• It has 167 members and India is the 77th Founding Member of IRENA.
• It has its headquarters in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.

What is the State of India’s Energy Transition?

• About: The country’s installed Renewable Energy (RE) capacity stands at 150.54 GW (solar: 48.55 GW, wind: 40.03 GW, Small hydro Power: 4.83, Biopower: 10.62, Large Hydro: 46.51 GW) as on 30th Nov. 2021 while its nuclear energy based installed electricity capacity stands at 6.78 GW.
• India has the 4th largest wind power capacity in the world. This brings the total non-fossil based installed energy capacity to 157.32 GW which is 40.1% of the total installed electricity capacity of 392.01 GW. € At COP26, India announced that it will reach carbon neutrality by 2070 as part of a five-point action plan that included reducing emissions to 50% by 2030.
• Rank of India in the Energy Transition Index: € India ranked 87 out of 110 countries in the Global Energy Transition Index (ETI) 2021, a benchmark by the World Economic Forum.
• Related Initiatives/Schemes: € International Solar Alliance One Sun, One World, One Grid (OSOWOG).
  • National Solar Mission.
  • Pradham Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaa
  • Mahabhiyaan (PM KUSUM)
  • Solar Park Scheme and Grid Connected Solar
  • Rooftop Scheme
  • National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy 2018.
  • Hydrogen Based Fuel Cells Vehicles
  • Green Energy Corridor (GEC)

Lead Poisoning

Why in News?

What is Lead Poisoning?

• About: Lead poisoning or chronic intoxication is caused by the absorption of Lead in the system and is characterised especially by fatigue, abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhoea, loss of appetite, anaemia, a dark line along the gums, and muscle paralysis or weakness of limbs.
• Children younger than 6 years are especially vulnerable to lead poisoning, which can severely affect mental and physical development. At very high levels, lead poisoning can be fatal. € Lead exposure also causes anaemia, hypertension, renal impairment, immunotoxicity and toxicity to the reproductive organs.
• More than three quarters of global lead consumption is for the manufacture of lead-acid batteries for motor vehicles.
• Sources of Lead Poisoning: People can become exposed to lead through occupational and environmental sources. This mainly results from:
  (i) Inhalation of lead particles generated by burning materials containing lead, for example during smelting, recycling, stripping leaded paint and using leaded aviation fuel; and
  (ii) Ingestion of lead-contaminated dust, water (from leaded pipes) and food (from lead-glazed or lead-soldered containers).

What is Lead?

• Lead is a naturally occurring toxic metal found in the Earth’s crust.
• Lead in the body is distributed to the brain, liver, kidney and bones. It is stored in the teeth and bones, where it accumulates over time.
• Human exposure is usually assessed through the measurement of lead in blood.
• Lead in bone is released into blood during pregnancy and becomes a source of exposure to the developing foetus.
• There is no level of exposure to lead that is known to be without harmful effects.
• Lead exposure is preventable.

What about the Disease Burden of Lead?

1. According to the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME), in 2019, lead exposure accounted for 900 000 deaths and 21.7 million years of healthy life lost (Disability-Adjusted Life Years, or DALYs) worldwide due to long-term effects on health.
2. The highest burden was in low- and middle-income countries.

What has been the Response of the World?

• WHO’s Response
  • Lead as one of 10 chemicals of major public health concern by the World Health Organization (WHO). WHO has joined with the United Nations Environment Programme to form the Global Alliance to Eliminate Lead Paint.
  • Leaded paint is a continuing source of exposure in many countries.
  • WHO is also a partner in a project funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) that aims to support at least 40 countries in enacting legally binding controls on lead paint.
  • The GEF, established on the eve of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, is a catalyst for action on the environment — and much more.
• India’s Response
  • The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MOEFCC) has passed a notification as “Regulation on Lead contents in Household and Decorative Paints Rules, 2016” and has prohibited manufacture, trade, import as well as export of household and decorative paints containing lead or lead compounds in excess of 90 Parts Per Million (PPM).

Heat Waves

Heat Wave 

• A Heat Wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal maximum temperature that occurs during the summer season in the North-Western parts of India.
• Heat Waves typically occur between March and June, and in some rare cases even extend till July. The extreme temperatures and resultant atmospheric conditions adversely affect people living in these regions as they cause physiological stress, sometimes resulting in death.

Criteria for Heat Wave
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has given the following criteria for Heat Waves:

There are two conditions which need to be satisfied:

• Heat wave is considered if maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40°C or more for Plains, 37°C or more for coastal stations and at least 30°C or more for Hilly regions. Following criteria are used to declare heat wave:
  • Based on Departure from Normal
  • Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
  • Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 6.4°C
  • Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (for plains only)
  • Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature 45°C
  • Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature 47°C
• Declare heat wave, the above criteria should be met at least in 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days and it will be declared on the second day.

Favourable Conditions for Heat Wave

• Transportation / Prevalence of hot dry air over a region (There should be a region of warm dry air and appropriate flow pattern for transporting hot air over the region).
• Absence of moisture in the upper atmosphere (As the presence of moisture restricts the temperature rise).
• The sky should be cloudless (To allow maximum insulation over the region).
• Large amplitude anti-cyclonic flow over the area.
• Heat waves develop over Northwest India and spread gradually eastwards & southwards but not westwards (since the prevailing winds during the season are westerly to north westerly).
• But on some occasions, heat wave may also develop over any region in situ under the favourable conditions.

Impacts of Heat Waves

• Health Impacts
  • The health impacts of Heat Waves typically involve dehydration, heat cramps, heat exhaustion and/or heat stroke. The signs and symptoms are as follows:
  • Heat Cramps: Ederna (swelling) and Syncope (Fainting) accompanied by fever below 39 i.e.,102ºF.
  • Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps and sweating.
  • Heat Stoke: Body temperatures of 40ºC i.e., 104ºF or more along with delirium, seizures or coma. This is a potentially fatal condition.
• Agriculture
  • High temperatures can be damaging to agriculture. Plant growth is negatively impacted by high daytime temperatures and some crops require cool night temperatures.
  • Heat waves also increase the chances of livestock experiencing heat stress, especially when nighttime temperatures remain high, and animals are unable to cool off.
  • Heat-stressed cattle can experience declines in milk production, slower growth, and reduced conception rates.
  • Heat waves can exacerbate droughts and wildfires, which can lead to negative impacts on the agriculture sector.
• Energy
  • High-pressure circulation in the atmosphere acts like a dome or cap, trapping heat at the surface and favoring the formation of a heat wave.
  • A heat dome is caused when atmosphere traps hot ocean air, as if bounded by a lid or cap. They can be linked to climate change. The upper air weather patterns are slow to move referred to by meteorologists as an Omega block.
  • In still, dry summer conditions, a mass of warm air builds up. The high pressure from the Earth's atmosphere pushes the warm air down. The air is compressed, and as its net heat is now in a smaller volume, so it must get hotter. As the warm air attempts to rise, the high pressure above it forces it down, to get hotter, and its pressure grows higher.
• The high pressure acts as if a dome, causing everything below it to get hotter and hotter. 

Resilience Strategies for Extreme Heat

• Identifying vulnerable populations and creating heat preparedness plans with all residents in mind, that may include steps like opening cooling centers during periods of extreme heat and adopting workplace heat stress standards.
• Installing cool and green roofs and cool pavement to reduce the urban heat island effect.
• Planting trees to provide shade and to cool the air through evapotranspiration.
• Pursuing energy efficiency to reduce demand on the electricity grid, especially during heat waves.
• IMD has changed its definition of the LPA, which is an indication of the average rainfall over a 50-year interval and, as per the norms of the World Meteorological Organization to which India is a signatory, should be updated every 10 years. For myriad reasons, the IMD stuck with an LPA number of 89 cm (the average monsoon rain from 1951-2000) until 2018, when it was updated to 88 cm (to reflect the average from 1961-2010). And now, to count for the 1971-2020 interval, the number is 87 cm. 
• While on the surface, it might look like India is losing just a centimetre of rainfall every decade, it must be remembered that this conceals wide shifts in rainfall when computed at the State and district levels as the monsoon rain is highly uneven. The IMD explains the loss of a centimetre every decade as part of a natural cycle of the monsoon where 30 years of less rain, or a ‘dry’ epoch, is followed by 30 years of a ‘wet epoch’.
• India began a dry epoch in the 1970-80 decade, the IMD says; it is now in a neutral phase and will enter a wet epoch in the decade, 2030-2040. The IMD has presented research over the years documenting the changes in the weather and rainfall in recent years down to sub-district levels, and has said that global warming, in its tendency to heat the oceans, has certainly had a role to play. 
• Much like the update to the average, the IMD must update some processes and lay stress on shorter forecasts, a month or a fortnight ahead, rather than maintain anachronistic traditions of long-range forecasts that are neither accurate nor useful.

Onset & Advance of Monsoon 
The guidelines to be followed for declaring the onset of monsoon over Kerala and its further advance over the country are enlisted below:

(a) Rainfall
If after 10th May, 60% of the available 14 stations enlisted*, viz. Minicoy, Amini, Thiruvananthapuram, Punalur, Kollam, Allapuzha, Kottayam, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, Thalassery, Kannur, Kudulu and Mangalore report rainfall of 2.5 mm or more for two consecutive days, the onset over Kerala be declared on the 2nd day, provided the following criteria are also in concurrence.

(b) Wind field
Depth of westerlies should be maintained upto 600 hPa, in the box equator to Lat. 10ºN and Long. 55ºE to 80ºE. The zonal wind speed over the area bounded by Lat. 5-10ºN, Long. 70-80ºE should be of the order of 15 – 20 Kts. at 925 hPa. 

The source of data can be RSMC wind analysis/satellite derived winds.

(c) Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR) 
INSAT derived OLR value should be below 200 wm-2 in the box confined by Lat. 5-10ºN and Long. 70-75ºE. 

Northern Limit of Monsoon (NLM)
Southwest monsoon normally sets in over Kerala around 1st June. It advances northwards, usually in surges, and covers the entire country around 15th July. 
The NLM is the northern most limit of monsoon upto which it has advanced on any given day.

Withdrawal of SW Monsoon 
(a) Withdrawal from extreme north-western parts of the country is not attempted before 1st September.
(b) After 1st September: The following major synoptic features are considered for the first withdrawal from the western parts of NW India. 

• Cessation of rainfall activity over the area for continuous 5 days. 
• Establishment of anticyclone in the lower troposphere (850 hPa and below) 
• Considerable reduction in moisture content as inferred from satellite water vapour imageries and tephigrams. 

Further Withdrawal From the Country

• Further withdrawal from the country is declared, keeping the spatial continuity, reduction in moisture as seen in the water vapour imageries and prevalence of dry weather for 5 days. Withdrawal of SW monsoon is from the southern peninsula and hence from the entire country only after 1st October, when the circulation pattern indicates a change over from the south-westerly wind regime. 
• Human waste disposal in innocuous form is an ever growing problem leading to aesthetic nuisance, threat of organic pollution & several infectious diseases in epidemic proportions due to contamination of ground water and drinking water resources in highly populated and developing countries, like India. Less than 30% of Indians have access to the toilets. In rural areas about 10% of houses have toilets and rest of the people go to open defecation. Population in the cities although have better access to the toilets but only to the tune of ~70%.
• Untreated waste is responsible for several diseases like, dysentery, diarrhoea, amoebiasis, viral hepatitis, cholera, typhoid etc. taking the life of lakhs of children annually. Bio decomposers degrade and converts the human waste into usable water and gasses in an eco-friendly manner. The generated gas can be utilized for energy/cooking and water for irrigation purposes. The process involves the bacteria which feed upon the faecal matter inside the tank, through anaerobic process which finally degrades the matter and releases methane gas that can be used for cooking, along with the treated water. 

Salient Features

• No bad smell in toilets from the tanks
• Faecal matter in the tank not visible
• No infestation of cockroaches & flies
• No clogging of digester
• Effluent is free from off odour and solid waste
• Reduction in pathogens by 99%
• Reduction in organic matter by 90%
• No maintenance required
• No requirement of adding bacteria/ enzyme
• No need of removal of solid waste
• Use of phenyl is permitted upto 84 ppm

Available Models

• Microbial inoculum (cold-active)
  • Isolated, screened, selected and enriched through acclimatization and bio-augmentation
  • Can withstand freezing and thawing
  • Ability to inactivate the intestinal pathogens
• High altitude model
  • Material: Metal/FRP of cylindrical shape
  • Works at low temperature as well as high temperature
• Glacier model
  • Material: Metal/FRP of cylindrical shape
  • Provided with insulation and heating arrangement with solar system
• Plain area model
  • Material: Material: FRP/MS
  • Suitable for existing/independent toilet
  • Also available with top mounted toilets
  • Can be installed for single house/apartment/society/ community
• Island model
  • Material: FRP
  • Design involves longer path for treatment
  • Suitable for high water usages and areas with high water table.
• Biotank model
  • Low cost, simple design for onsite construction
  • Material: Brick / RCC structure/ FRP
  • REED BED SYSTEM (optional) improves effluent quality & can also be used to treat kitchen and bathroom wastewater
  • Final effluent safe and can be used for recycling or irrigation
  • Can be installed for single house/ apartment/society /community

Dam Safety Act, 2021

Need for a Legislation for Dam Safety

• Dams are artificial barriers on rivers which store water and help in irrigation, power generation, flood moderation, and water supply.
• Dams with a height of more than 15 metres or between 10 and 15 metres that meet certain extra design criteria are referred to as huge dams in India. India has 5,745 big dams as of June 2019. (Includes dams under construction).
• Of these, 5,675 large dams are operated by states, 40 by central public sector undertakings, and five by private agencies. Over 75% of these dams are more than 20 years old and about 220 dams are more than 100 years old.2, Most of these large dams are in Maharashtra (2394), Madhya Pradesh (906), and Gujarat (632).
• As a large amount of water may be stored in a dam’s reservoir, its failure can cause large scale damage to life and property. Therefore, monitoring dam safety is essential for following reasons:
  • Deteriorating conditions: As dams get older, their design and hydrology fall out of step with current knowledge and practises. Dams' water holding capacity is being lowered because of massive siltation.
  • Dependent on Dam Managers: There is no proper system and understanding in terms of the downstream water requirement.
  • Dam surroundings: Dam safety is dependent upon other factors such as landscape, land-use change, patterns of rainfall, structural features, etc.
  • Failures: In the lack of a competent dam safety framework, flaws in the investigation, design, building, operation, and maintenance of dams may occur, resulting in serious events and, in some cases, dam failure.

Current Organizational Structure

• Central Dam Safety Organisation, under the Central Water Commission (CWC), provides technical assistance to dam owners, and maintains data on dams.
• National Committee on Dam Safety devises dam safety policies and regulations.
• Currently, 18 states and four dam owning organisations have their own Dam Safety Organisations.
• CWC provides that each dam owner should conduct pre and post monsoon inspections (covering site conditions, dam operations) every year.
• However, as per a CAG report on flood forecasting, from 2008 to 2016, of the 17 states studied, only two had carried out such inspections.

Key Features of the Act

• Act applies to all specified dams in the country. 
  • These are dams with:
    (i) height more than 15 metres, or
    (ii) height between 10 metres to 15 metres and satisfying certain additional design conditions such as, reservoir capacity of at least one million cubic meter, and length of top of the dam at least 500 metres.
• Obligation of dam owners
  • Dam owners will be responsible for the safe construction, operation, maintenance and supervision of a dam. They must provide a dam safety unit in each dam.
  • This unit will inspect the dams:
    (i) Before and after monsoon season
    (ii) During and after every earthquake, flood, calamity, or any sign of distress.
  • Functions of dam owners include:
    (i) Preparing an emergency action plan
    (ii) Conducting risk assessment studies at specified regular intervals
    (iii) Preparing a comprehensive dam safety evaluation through a panel of experts.
• Dam safety authorities
  • The Act provides for dam safety regulatory and monitoring authorities at the national and state level. The functions of the national bodies and the State Committees on Dam Safety have been provided in Schedules to the Act. The central government can amend these Schedules through a notification.
• At the national level, it constitutes
  • The National Committee on Dam Safety, whose functions include evolving policies and recommending regulations regarding dam safety, 
  • The National Dam Safety Authority, whose functions include implementing policies of the National Committee, and resolving matters between State Dam Safety Organisations (SDSOs), or between a SDSO and any dam owner in that state.
  • The central government may notify the qualifications, and functions of the officers of the National Dam Safety Authority.
• At the state level, it constitutes the
  • State Dam Safety Organisations (SDSOs), whose functions include keeping perpetual surveillance, inspecting, and monitoring dams.
  • State Committee on Dam Safety which will supervise state dam rehabilitation programs,review the work of the SDSO, and review the progress on measures recommended in relation to dam safety, among others. State governments may notify the qualifications, and functions of officers of the State Dam Safety Organisations.
  • They may also notify dam safety measures to be undertaken by owners of non-specified dams.
• Offences and penalties
  • Anyone obstructing a person in the discharge of his functions under the Act or refusing to comply with directions may be imprisoned for a year. In case of loss of life, the person may be imprisoned for two years.
• Issues With the Legislation
  • Jurisdiction of Parliament to frame a law on intra-state river dams
    • The Act applies to all specified dams in the country. These are dams with: Height more than 15 metres, Height between 10 to 15 metres, subject to certain design and structural conditions. This includes dams on both inter and intrastate rivers. The question is whether Parliament has the authority to frame a law on intra-state dams.
    • As per Entry 17 of the State List, states can make laws on water supply, irrigation and canals, drainage and embankments, water storage and waterpower, subject to Entry 56 of the Union List. Entry 56 of the Union List allows Parliament to make laws on the regulation of inter-state rivers and river valleys if it declares such regulation to be expedient in public interest.
    • The Act declares it expedient in public interest for the Union to regulate on a uniform dam safety procedure for all specified dams. However, given Entry 17, it is unclear how Parliament would have the authority to frame a law for dams on rivers where the river and its valley are entirely within a state.
    • Functions of authorities may be changed through notification
    • The functions of the National Committee on Dam Safety, the National Dam Safety Authority, and the State Committee on Dam Safety are provided in Schedules to the Act.
    • Their functions include: resolving issues between State Dam Safety Organisations (SDSOs), or between a SDSO and a dam owner, assessing potential impact of dam failure and coordinating mitigation measures with affected states, supervising dam rehabilitation programmes.
    • These Schedules can be amended through notification. This implies that the core functions of these bodies can be changed by the government through notification without prior amendment of the Act by Parliament. The question is whether the Act should require an amendment by Parliament to change the core functions of such bodies. 
    • In various laws such as the Aadhaar Act, 2016, and the National Medical Commission Act, 2019, the functions of the regulatory body are specified in the Act with a provision to expand the functions through notification. Note that the functions mentioned in these Acts cannot be curtailed except through an Amendment Act passed by Parliament. In the 2010 Act, functions of all authorities were specified in the Act.