Environment & Ecology - 4 | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly - UPSC PDF Download

Decoding Urban Flooding

Context:

•  As India undergoes rapid urbanisation, with an expected 40.76% of the population living in urban areas by 2030, urbanisation is considered an important driver of economic growth.
• However, urban planning and technology have not kept up with the pace of urbanisation, leading to unplanned development and exacerbating the effects of climate change.
• Urban flooding has become a pressing issue due to the aforementioned factors, leading to severe flooding incidents in cities like Hyderabad, Chennai, and Bengaluru.
• The 2020 floods in Hyderabad submerged thousands of homes, while the 2015 Chennai floods highlighted the impact of rapid urbanisation on the city's flood vulnerability.
• More recently, Bengaluru has experienced numerous flooding incidents during the monsoon season, emphasizing the need for effective flood management strategies in urban areas.

Understanding Urban Flooding

• Urban flooding occurs when rainwater exceeds the drainage capacity of a built environment, particularly in densely populated areas such as cities.
• Unlike rural flooding that occurs due to heavy rain over flat or low-lying areas, urban flooding is also caused by unplanned urbanisation that leads to increased catchments.
• Unplanned urbanisation can increase flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times, exacerbating the effects of higher precipitation.
• Urban flooding poses a significant risk to human life, property, and infrastructure, and effective flood management strategies are essential to minimize its impact.

Causes of Urban Flooding in India

 Encroachments on Drainage Channels: In Indian cities and towns, new developments are often built in low-lying areas, encroaching on lakes, wetlands, and riverbeds. Widening natural drains is essential to accommodate higher flows of stormwater, but large-scale encroachments have reduced their capacity, resulting in flooding.

• Lack of widening of natural drains
• Decreased capacity of natural drains
• Increased encroachments on lakes, wetlands, and riverbeds

Climate Change: Extreme events caused by climate change have resulted in an increase in the frequency of short-duration heavy rainfall, leading to higher water runoff. The urban heat island effect, caused by climate change, also results in increased rainfall over urban areas, leading to flooding.

• Increase in the frequency of short-duration heavy rainfall
• Urban heat island effect
• Highly localized and intense rainfall

Unplanned Tourism Activities: Water bodies used for tourism development often lead to removing water plants that reduce runoff speed. Throwing non-biodegradable matter into the rivers and lakes during religious and cultural activities also reduces water quality, posing health risks during floods.

• Removal of water plants
• Non-biodegradable matter thrown into rivers and lakes
• Health risks posed during floods

Uninformed Release of Water from Dams: Unplanned and sudden release of water from dams and lakes lead to floods in an urban area without giving the public enough time to respond.

• Unplanned and sudden release of water from dams and lakes
• Insufficient response time for the public

Illegal Mining Activities: Illegal mining of river sand and quartzite for building construction depletes the natural bed of rivers and lakes, causing soil erosion and reducing water retention capacity, leading to increased water flow.

• Illegal mining of river sand and quartzite
• Soil erosion and reduction in water retention capacity
• Increased water flow

Examples:

• Encroachment on lakes and wetlands in Indian cities like Bengaluru and Hyderabad
• Chennai Floods in 2015 due to unplanned release of water from Chembarambakkam Lake
• Ashtamudi Lake in Kollam, Kerala polluted due to illegal tourism activities
• Jaisamand Lake in Jodhpur and Cauvery River in Tamil Nadu affected by illegal mining activities

What are the Impacts of Urban Flooding?

Urban flooding is associated with various impacts on both human and ecological systems. Some of the key impacts are:

• Loss of Life and Property: Urban flooding can cause loss of life and physical injury due to direct or indirect effects. It can damage buildings, crops, and infrastructure, leading to disruptions in essential services like water supply, sewerage, power, and communication.
• Ecological Impacts: Urban flooding can cause riverbank erosion, loss of vegetation and trees, and a decline in biodiversity.
• Impact on Animal and Human Health: Urban flooding can lead to water-borne diseases, sewage and solid waste contamination of houses and neighbourhoods, and various health problems. It can also affect animal habitats and health.
• Psychological Impacts: Urban flooding can create emotional turmoil and long-lasting psychological trauma for those affected, due to the loss of shelter and loved ones, and the prolonged recovery process.

How to Address Urban Flooding?

• Developing Blue Green Infrastructure:
  • Blue Green Infrastructure is a sustainable solution to urban and climatic challenges.
  • Water management and infrastructure development should be equally emphasised for better living environments.
  • Rainwater Harvesting should be a mandatory component of building utility to ensure water conservation.
  • Blue indicates water bodies like rivers and tanks, while green indicates trees, parks, and gardens.
• Flood Vulnerability Mapping:
  • Identifying vulnerable areas can be done through analysing topography and historical data of inundations.
  • Maintaining records of all water bodies and wetlands is important for flood avoidance, tolerance, and resilience.
• Effective Water-Shed Management:
  • Building flood walls and raised platforms along flood-prone river basins and cleaning drainage channels should be done throughout the river basin.
  • Bioswales can be made along roadsides to allow rainwater to percolate into the ground.
  • Catchment areas of water bodies should be free from encroachment and pollution.
• Disaster Resilient Public Utility:
  • Hospitals, schools, and basic services like food, water, health, and sanitation should be made disaster resilient.
  • They should be located or relocated to function without hindrance during inundations.
• Sensitisation and Rehabilitation:
  • Awareness should be created about flood preparedness and mitigation measures, along with response drills.
  • Educating residents on the risks of illegal constructions along drains and water bodies is necessary.
  • The government should consider relocating the poor to other areas.
• Institutional Arrangements:
  • A unified flood control implementing agency should be formed at the city level.
  • This agency should include city officials, doctors, police, firefighters, NGOs, and emergency service providers.

Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Forestry Report: FAO

Why in News:

• The Food and Agriculture Organization has published a report called "Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Forestry Report".
• The report emphasizes the importance of integrating biodiversity into production forests.
• Mainstreaming Biodiversity is a process that involves incorporating biodiversity considerations into the policies, strategies, and practices of public and private actors.
• The goal is to promote the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources.

Threats to Mainstreaming Biodiversity

The integration of biodiversity into forestry is crucial, but there are several challenges that need to be addressed. Some of the main threats to mainstreaming biodiversity are:

• Deforestation: Around 10 million hectares of forests are destroyed each year due to agricultural expansion, especially in lower-income tropical countries.
• Illegal Forest Activities: Illegal logging is a significant problem, accounting for 15-30% of global timber production.
• Low Conservation Profile: Conservation is often given low priority outside protected areas.
• Insufficient Capacity: Developing countries face difficulties in enforcing forest and biodiversity regulations due to limited resources and expertise.
• Lack of Participation: The participation of Indigenous Peoples and local communities is often insufficient or overlooked.
• Weak Governance: Weak governance and law enforcement pose significant obstacles to biodiversity conservation, especially in protected areas.

Why is Forest Conservation Important?

• Forests that are managed primarily for economic benefits are critical for biodiversity conservation.
• Forests cover 31% of the world’s land surface, store an estimated 296 gigatonnes of carbon and are home to most of the world’s terrestrial biodiversity.
• The world’s forests provide habitats for about 80% of amphibian species, 75% of bird species and 68% of mammal species. In addition, about 60% of all vascular plants occur in tropical forests.
• The role of forests in maintaining biodiversity is explicitly recognised by the United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests 2017–2030.
• In 2019, FAO adopted the Strategy on Mainstreaming Biodiversity across Agricultural Sectors.

Recommendations for Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Forestry

• Recognize the forest tenure of Indigenous Peoples and local communities and ensure equitable sharing of benefits.
• Prevent the conversion of natural forests into monospecific forest plantations.
• Ensure the sustainable management of harvested species to control overharvesting of plants and wildlife.
• Adopt a multisectoral perspective by integrating biodiversity considerations into other land use sectors.
• Provide economic incentives such as compensation for reduced production to promote biodiversity benefits and invest in knowledge and capacity development.
• Facilitate market-based instruments such as public-private partnerships to leverage corporate social responsibility commitments.
• Leverage global momentum on restoration to enhance biodiversity conservation.

Way Forward for Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Forestry

• Integrated multi-stakeholder approaches that cross sectoral boundaries are necessary for biodiversity mainstreaming in the forest sector.
• Prioritize forest policies, plans, programmes, projects and investments that have a positive impact on biodiversity at the ecosystem, species and genetic levels to mainstream biodiversity in forestry.

What is the State of Forest and Biodiversity Conservation in India?

Forest:

• According to India State of Forest Report, 2021, the Total Forest and Tree cover is now 7,13,789 square kilometres, 21.71% of the country’s geographical area, an increase from 21.67% in 2019.
• Largest Forest Cover (Area-wise): Madhya Pradesh> Arunachal Pradesh> Chhattisgarh> Odisha> Maharashtra.

Constitutional Provisions:

• Through the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 Forests and Protection of Wild Animals and Birds were transferred from State to Concurrent List along with Education, Weights & Measures and Administration of Justice.
• Article 48 A in the Directive Principles of State policy, mandates that the State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.
• Article 51 A (g) of the Constitution states that it shall be the Fundamental Duty of every citizen to protect and improve the natural environment including forests and Wildlife.

Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework

Why in News:

• The 15th Conference of Parties (COP15) to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity concluded with the adoption of the “Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework” (GBF).
• GBF sets four goals and 23 targets for the next decade, aiming to address the biodiversity crisis and promote sustainability.
• The conference was held in two parts: the first part took place in Kunming, China, where over 100 countries adopted the Kunming Declaration to reinforce their commitment to biodiversity conservation.
• The second part was held in Montreal, Canada, where the GBF was adopted.

Key Targets of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF)

The GBF aims to achieve 4 goals and 23 targets by 2030, some of which are:

Goal 1: Conservation of Nature and Biological Diversity

• Conserve and manage 30% of terrestrial, inland water, and coastal and marine areas by 2030
• Restore 30% of degraded ecosystems globally (on land and sea) by 2030
• Stop the extinction of known species, and by 2050 reduce the extinction risk and rate of all species by tenfold (including unknown)

Goal 2: Sustainable Use and Management of Nature

• Sustainably manage areas under agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries, and forestry, and substantially increase agroecology and other biodiversity-friendly practices
• Secure the safe, legal, and sustainable use and trade of wild species by 2030

Goal 3: Reduction of Pressures on Nature

• Reduce the rate of introduction and establishment of invasive alien species by at least 50% by 2030
• Reduce risk from pesticides by at least 50% by 2030
• Reduce nutrients lost to the environment by at least 50% by 2030
• Reduce pollution risks and negative impacts of pollution from all sources by 2030 to levels that are not harmful to biodiversity and ecosystem functions
• Tackle climate change through nature-based solutions

Goal 4: Increased Benefits from Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

• Reduce the global footprint of consumption by 2030, including significantly reducing overconsumption and waste generation and halving food waste
• Green up urban spaces.

Major Outcomes of COP15

Money for Nature:

• The signatories agreed to channel USD 200 billion per year to conservation initiatives from public and private sources.
• Wealthier countries should contribute at least USD 20 billion of this every year by 2025, and at least USD 30 billion a year by 2030.

Big Companies Report Impacts on Biodiversity:

• Companies are required to analyze and report how their operations affect and are affected by biodiversity issues.
• Large companies and financial institutions are subject to "requirements" to make disclosures regarding their operations, supply chains, and portfolios.

Harmful Subsidies:

• Countries committed to identifying subsidies that deplete biodiversity by 2025 and eliminate, phase out or reform them.
• They also agreed to reduce incentives that are harmful to biodiversity by at least USD 500 billion a year by 2030 and increase incentives that are positive for conservation.

Monitoring and reporting progress:

• The agreed aims will be supported by processes to monitor progress in the future, to prevent this agreement from meeting the same fate as similar targets that were agreed upon in Aichi, Japan, in 2010, and never met.
• National action plans will be set and reviewed following a similar format used for greenhouse gas emissions under U.N.-led efforts to curb climate change. However, some observers objected to the lack of a deadline for countries to submit these plans.

India's Proposal at the Conference

• India proposed a new and separate fund to support developing countries in implementing post-2020 global framework to stop and reverse biodiversity loss.
• The Global Environment Facility is currently the only source of funding for biodiversity conservation, and it caters to multiple conventions, including the UNFCCC and UN Convention to Combat Desertification.
• India emphasized that conservation of biodiversity should be based on the principle of 'Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities' (CBDR) because climate change impacts nature.
• India argued that developing countries shoulder most of the responsibility for meeting the targets of conserving biodiversity, and therefore, require sufficient funding and technology transfer to support their efforts.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

• The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a treaty to conserve biodiversity that was ratified by 196 nations in 1993.
• CBD provides guidelines for countries to protect biodiversity, ensure sustainable use, and promote fair and equitable benefit sharing.
• The aim of CBD is to achieve a historic deal to halt and reverse biodiversity loss on par with the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change.
• The CBD Secretariat is based in Montreal, Canada, and the Parties (countries) under CBD meet at regular intervals in conferences called Conference of Parties (COP).
• In 2000, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was adopted as a supplementary agreement to the Convention to protect biological diversity from potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology.
• The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization (ABS) was adopted in 2010 at COP10 in Nagoya, Japan.
• The Nagoya Protocol not only applies to genetic resources but also traditional knowledge (TK) associated with genetic resources and the benefits arising from their utilization.
• COP-10 adopted a ten-year framework for action by all countries to save biodiversity called the “Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020”, which provided a set of 20 targets known as the Aichi Targets for biodiversity.
• India enacted the Biological Diversity Act in 2002 to give effect to the provisions of the CBD.
• India called for an urgent need to create a new and dedicated fund to help developing countries successfully implement a post-2020 global framework to halt and reverse biodiversity loss, stating that conservation of biodiversity must also be based on 'Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities' (CBDR) as climate change also impacts nature. India also mentioned that developing countries bear most of the burden of implementing the targets for conserving biodiversity and, therefore, require adequate funding and technology transfer.

Stubble Burning

Why in News:

• The government of Delhi has decided to use a bio-decomposer to control stubble burning in paddy fields during winter and reduce air pollution.
• A trial of spraying bio-decomposer on 5,000 acres of land in Punjab will be conducted.

  Bio-decomposer is a microbial solution that can convert paddy straw into manure within 15-20 days.

• Stubble burning releases a significant amount of smoke and toxic gases which pose health risks ranging from mild to severe respiratory illnesses.

Stubble Burning:

• Stubble burning is the practice of deliberately setting fire to the leftover straw after harvesting grains like rice and wheat.
• The technique was common until the 1990s when governments started to restrict it.
• Stubble burning in northern India has been a major cause of air pollution, and attempts to stop it have failed every year.
• When winter sets in, Delhi's air pollution peaks, with the air quality index (AQI) often dropping to 'severe' and 'hazardous' categories.

Impact of Stubble Burning:

• Stubble burning in northern India has been a significant cause of air pollution, making people more susceptible to infection and delaying their recovery post-infection.
• Burning husk on the ground destroys soil nutrients and fertility.
• Heat generated by stubble burning penetrates the soil, causing a loss of moisture and useful microbes.

Alternatives to Stubble Burning:

• Using a Turbo Happy Seeder (THS) machine can uproot stubble, sow seeds, and use the stubble as mulch for the field.
• The Pusa bio-decomposer developed by scientists at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute can turn crop residue into manure in 15-20 days by accelerating the decomposition process.
• Providing equipment to farmers for in-situ treatment of stubble, so they do not have to burn it.
• Collecting stubble for use in ex-situ treatment.
• Changing cropping patterns and subsidising crops other than paddy, the primary source of stubble burning.

Way Ahead:

• Small and marginal farmers need support for the adoption of in-situ strategies to mulch the straw into the soil and not burn it.
• Imposing fines is unlikely to work, so the focus should be on alternative solutions.

Regenerative Farming

Why in News:

• Farmers in Madhya Pradesh who practice regenerative farming techniques have reported a decreased requirement for frequent irrigation, resulting in water and energy conservation.

Regenerative Agriculture: A Sustainable Farming Practice

Regenerative agriculture is a farming method that prioritizes soil health and sustainability. By adopting this approach, farmers aim to enhance soil quality, increase food production, promote biodiversity, and reduce carbon emissions. The following are the key points that summarize regenerative agriculture:

• Soil health is the primary focus: Regenerative agriculture is centered on soil health, as healthy soil is vital for crop growth and nutrient absorption. The practice involves using natural inputs, such as compost, animal manure, and crop residues, to improve soil structure and organic carbon content.
• Minimal soil disturbance: Minimum-till and mulching are used to reduce soil erosion and maintain soil moisture levels.
• Crop diversity: Regenerative agriculture promotes planting diverse and native crop varieties, which increases biodiversity, and minimizes the risk of crop failure.
• Water conservation: Farmers who practice regenerative agriculture use water-efficient crops, alternate watering cycles, and plant water-guzzling crops alongside those that are drought-resistant. This approach reduces the frequency and intensity of irrigation, thereby conserving water and energy.
• Reduced chemical use: Regenerative agriculture emphasizes the use of natural inputs and aims to reduce the application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
• Lower input costs: By using natural inputs and minimizing soil disturbance, regenerative agriculture can help farmers save on input costs.

In India, the Union government is promoting regenerative agriculture to reduce chemical use, lower input costs, and promote sustainable farming practices.

The Importance of Regenerative Agriculture

Regenerative agriculture is essential for addressing the following issues:

• Soil degradation: Current agricultural practices, including the use of heavy machinery, fertilizers, and pesticides, are leading to soil degradation and loss. According to Regeneration International, there may not be enough soil left to feed the world within 50 years. Regenerative agriculture offers a solution to this problem by focusing on soil health and employing practices that improve soil quality and reduce erosion.
• Climate change: Conventional farming methods release carbon dioxide stored in the soil, contributing to global warming and climate change. Agriculture accounts for over a third of greenhouse gas emissions globally, according to the United Nations. Regenerative agriculture offers a way to reduce emissions by using natural inputs and reducing soil disturbance.
• Extreme events: Soil degradation and erosion make environments more vulnerable to extreme weather events such as flooding, which are becoming more frequent and intense due to global warming. Regenerative agriculture can help mitigate these events by improving soil quality and reducing erosion.

To summarize, regenerative agriculture is crucial for promoting soil health, reducing carbon emissions, and mitigating the effects of climate change and extreme weather events.

Potential Benefits of Regenerative Agriculture

• Multiple benefits: Regenerative farming can improve:
  • Crop yields
  • Volume of crops produced
  • Health of soil
  • Soil’s ability to retain water
  • Reducing soil erosion.
• Feeding people: Improved yields will help feed the world as the global population grows.
• Environmental benefits: Regenerative farming can also reduce emissions from agriculture and turn the croplands and pastures, which cover up to 40% of Earth’s ice-free land area, into carbon sinks. 
• These are environments that naturally absorb CO₂ from the atmosphere. 

The Challenges Faced by Agriculture

Agriculture in India faces several major challenges, which are outlined below:

• Groundwater depletion: The Green Revolution of the 1960s transformed India into a major food exporter, but it also made the country the world's largest extractor of groundwater. According to the UN's World Water Development Report 2022, India extracts 251 cubic km, or more than a quarter of the world's groundwater withdrawal each year. 90% of this water is used for agriculture.
• Stagnant crop yields: Despite the use of modern farming techniques and inputs, a study by the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, reveals that over 39 million hectares of land under wheat, rice, and maize in the country have not shown any improvement in the past decade, leading to stagnant crop yields.
• Soil degradation: Indian soils suffer from a severe and widespread deficiency of organic carbon and micronutrients, according to a 2022 report by the Delhi-based think tank Centre for Science and Environment. This deficiency is leading to the degradation of soil health.
• Lack of scientific studies: There is a lack of capacity among civil society organizations and farmers to conduct long-term studies, which are necessary for developing effective solutions to the challenges faced by Indian agriculture.

In conclusion, the depletion of groundwater, stagnant crop yields, soil degradation, and the lack of scientific studies are major challenges facing agriculture in India.

Way Forward

• Sustainable farming: In order to feed India's undernourished population of 224.5 million, agriculture needs to work in harmony with nature, using methods of sustainable farming that rely on natural inputs and cultivation practices such as crop rotation and diversification which fall under the wider umbrella of regenerative agriculture.
• Chemical-less farming: Farmers, activists, and agricultural research organizations worldwide are developing methods of chemical-less farming which rely on natural inputs and cultivation practices.
• Soil health: Healthy soil helps with better water storage, transmission, filtering, and reducing agricultural run-off. Studies show that a 1% increase in soil organic matter per 0.4 ha can increase water storage potential by more than 75,000 liters.
• Global practice: Regenerative agriculture is used globally, including in Latin America, the United States, Canada, Africa, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand.
• Application in India: States like Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Sikkim, and Gujarat have introduced schemes to promote regenerative agriculture.
• Research: Conducted research is necessary to understand the role of regenerative agriculture in saving water. Scientific findings can further inform policy measures and future initiatives.
• National Project on Organic Farming: The National Project on Organic Farming is the country's longest experiment with regenerative agriculture, ongoing since 2004 and conducted by ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming System Research to promote organic farming.

Global Water Resources Report 2021: WMO

Context: 

• The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has recently published its inaugural yearly report on the state of worldwide water resources, called the "State of Global Water Resources Report 2021".

Overview of the Global Water Resources Report 2021

• The Global Water Resources Report 2021 is an annual report aimed at helping to monitor and manage global freshwater resources in the face of increasing demand and limited supply.
• The report focuses on three main areas: streamflow, terrestrial water storage (TWS), and the cryosphere.
• Streamflow refers to the volume of water that flows through a river channel at a specific time.
• Terrestrial water storage encompasses all water present on land surfaces and in sub-surfaces.
• The cryosphere refers to frozen water sources such as glaciers, ice caps, and permafrost.

Key Findings from UN-Water's Report on Global Water Resources 2021

Overview:

• The UN-Water report highlights the significance of water-related natural disasters and the need for governments to prioritize water in their adaptation efforts. Additionally, the report sheds light on the inadequate access to water that millions of people face and the expected increase in this number by 2050.

Streamflow by Region:

• The report identifies areas with below-average and above-average streamflow, with the former being almost twice as large as the latter. South America's Rio de la Plata area is suffering from persistent drought since 2019, while major rivers in Africa, Russia, West Siberia, and Central Asia had below-average water flow in 2021. Conversely, some North American basins, the North Amazon, South Africa, China's Amur River basin, and northern India experienced above-normal river volumes.

Terrestrial Water Storage:

• The report classifies overall terrestrial water storage as below normal in several regions, including the west coast of the United States, central South America and Patagonia, North Africa and Madagascar, Central Asia and the Middle East, Pakistan, and North India. However, it was above normal in Central Africa, northern South America (specifically the Amazon Basin), and northern China.

Cryosphere:

• Mountains serve as a vital source of freshwater supplies for approximately 1.9 billion people. Changes in cryosphere water resources can have far-reaching impacts on food security, human health, ecosystem integrity, economic and social development.

Inadequate Access to Water:

• Currently, 3.6 billion people worldwide have insufficient access to water for at least one month per year. This number is expected to rise to over five billion by 2050.

Climate Change and La Niña:

• Climate change and a La Niña event influenced precipitation patterns in 2021, leading to drier-than-normal conditions in several regions globally.

Water-Related Natural Disasters:

• Between 2001 and 2018, 74% of all natural disasters were water-related, highlighting the need for governments to prioritize water in their adaptation and disaster management efforts.

Impact of Global Warming on Indo-Gangetic Plain

Overview:

• The impact of global warming on the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) is worsening, with more evidence emerging that highlights the decline in water storage in the Ganga-Brahmaputra and Indus basins, which form the Plain. Despite this, the basins recorded more water flowing in the river channels due to glacial melt in 2021.

Scenario of India:

• The IGP, which spans eastern Pakistan, northern India, southern Nepal, and the whole of Bangladesh, is the lifeline for nearly half a billion people in these four countries. The declining water storage in the basins, coupled with increasing demand, poses a major threat to the region's water security and could have significant socio-economic implications.

Recommendations:

To address the growing water crisis, the following recommendations are suggested:

• Fill the knowledge gap and provide a concise overview of water availability in different parts of the world.
• Develop end-to-end drought and flood early warning systems.
• Use long-term projections of glacier run-off and the timing of peak water as key inputs to long-term adaptation decisions.
• Accelerate the availability and sharing of hydrological data, including river discharge and transboundary river basin information.

World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

(i) The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is an intergovernmental organization.
(ii) The organization has 193 Member States and Territories.
(iii) India is one of the members of WMO.
(iv) WMO was originally known as the International Meteorological Organization (IMO).
(v) It was established after the 1873 Vienna International Meteorological Congress.
(vi) WMO became the specialized agency of the United Nations for meteorology, operational hydrology, and related geophysical sciences after its ratification on March 23, 1950.
(vii) The organization's headquarters is located in Geneva, Switzerland.