Expansions of Aryans in India | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Original Home and Identity of the Aryans

The composers of the Rig Veda referred to themselves as arya, a term that signifies a cultural or ethnic identity. The word Arya appears 36 times in the Rig Veda, typically denoting a cultural community. It can be interpreted to mean kinsman or companion, and may also be etymologically linked to the word ar, meaning to cultivate.

There is significant divergence among scholars regarding the identification of the Aryans' original home before their migration into India, and no firm consensus has been reached. This issue requires examination from both linguistic and racial perspectives.

Abandonment of Racial Classification

• During the 19th and early 20th centuries, a period marked by the colonization of large parts of Africa and Asia by European nations, many scholars viewed history through the lens of racial movements and interactions. People were classified into different races, such as Caucasian,Mongoloid, and Negroid, based on physical and other characteristics. This classification provided a pseudo-scientific justification for the European domination of Asian and African peoples, whom they depicted as inferior races.
• For instance, Penka and his contemporaries approached the Indo-Aryans from a racial standpoint, proposing that Germany was the original home of the Indo-Aryans. However, contemporary anthropologists have largely abandoned racial classifications. The outdated and biased concept of race, which depicted people from different parts of the world as separate, unrelated, and unchanging entities, has been replaced by more meaningful and objective methods of understanding human cultures.

Aryan as a Linguistic Group

• The terms Indo-European and Indo-Aryan are linguistic classifications, not racial ones. They refer to families of languages and their speakers. Sir William Jones, in 1786, demonstrated that Sanskrit and several European languages, such as Greek,Latin,German,Celtic,Gothic, and Persian, shared a common origin. This led to the identification of the Indo-European language group. Max Müller emphasized that, scientifically,Aryan refers to language, not race.
• Thus, the Aryans are considered a linguistic group of people who spoke an Indo-European language, from which languages like Sanskrit,Latin, and Greek later emerged. Similarities in sound and meaning among words in these languages support this classification. For example, the Sanskrit words matri and pitri are similar to the Latin mater and pater.
• The Vedic texts exhibit a close connection with ancient Iran. The Aryans first appeared in Iran, where the Indo-Iranians lived for an extended period, although the reasons for their separation into Indo-Iranians and Indo-Aryans remain unclear.

Some of the earliest specimens of the Indo-European language include:

• An inscription from Iraq dating back to 2200 B.C.
• Hittite inscriptions in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) from the 19th to 17th centuries B.C. For instance, the Hittite word Inar is similar to the Vedic god Indra.
• Aryan names found in Kassite inscriptions from around 1600 B.C. in Iraq. For example, the Kassite names Suryyas and Maruttash are equivalent to the Vedic names Surya and Marut.
• Mitanni inscriptions from the 14th century B.C. in Syria.

The original homeland of the Indo-Europeans and Indo-Aryans remains a topic of ongoing debate:

• It is widely believed that the Indo-Aryans migrated to the Indian subcontinent.

Europe as the Original Home of the Aryans

• Scholars argue that the Indo-European languages are predominantly found in Europe, with some extending into the region of Punjab during the early Rig Vedic period. This linguistic distribution has led many to conclude that Europe, rather than India, was the original homeland of the Aryans.

The Theory of Indigenous Origin of the Aryans

• There is substantial literary evidence indicating that the Sapta-Sindhu region was considered the original home by the Vedic Aryans. Furthermore, there are no references in Vedic literature suggesting that the Aryans migrated into India from an external country. It is implausible that the Aryans would have forgotten their original home if it were located outside of India. Typically, migrating peoples maintain an emotional connection to their land of origin. However, no such evidence is present in Vedic literature.
• Critics argue that linguistic similarities cannot be taken as definitive proof of the Aryans' immigration from another country. In the Sanskrit language, the majority of vocabulary is of Aryan origin. If parts of Europe were the original home of the Indo-Aryans, it is puzzling why only a few vocabulary items are found in the languages of European countries.
• It is also suggested that the Aryan language and other languages of Aryan affinity emerged due to contact between migrating Aryans and non-Aryans within India. Another argument supporting this view is that Vedic literature reflects the advanced thoughts of the Aryans. If the Aryans had come to India from outside, one would expect to find traces of their thoughts and literary activities in the regions they traversed. However, no such records have been discovered.
• The absence of any records in places through which the Aryans traveled raises questions about the notion that they developed their literary and intellectual acumen only after arriving in India. While some arguments suggest that the Vedic Aryans were indigenous to India, the prevailing majority opinion favors the view that the Aryans migrated into India.
• Over time, various proposed original homelands for the Indo-Aryans have emerged. A widely accepted perspective places the original homeland of the Aryans in the steppes extending from southern Russia to Central Asia. Shared names of animals (such as goats, dogs, and horses) and plants (such as pine and maple) across Indo-European languages suggest common fauna and flora from this region.

The Aryan Invasion: Myth or Reality?

Sources Indicating Aryan Migration
The arrival of the Aryans in India occurred in multiple waves, with the earliest group represented by the Rig Vedic people, who are believed to have entered the subcontinent around 1500 B.C.

Linguistic Evidence:

• Linguistic similarities have been observed between the Rigveda and the Avesta, the oldest text in the Iranian language. These texts share common names for several gods and social classes.
• The Sanskrit words matri(mother) and pitri(father) are similar to the Latin mater and pater.

Archaeological Evidence:

• While clear and definitive archaeological traces of the Aryans' arrival are lacking, there are some indications. For instance, artifacts such as socketed axes, bronze dirks, and swords have been discovered in northwestern India.
• The Painted Grey Ware Pottery, dated between 900 B.C. and approximately 500 B.C., is often linked to Aryan craftsmanship.
• Similarities in pottery forms, ceramic paintings, and copper object designs between post-Harappan and West Asian/Iranian Chalcolithic assemblages have been emphasized to support the idea of Aryan migration from West Asia to the Indian subcontinent.
• Archaeological evidence of horses and horse sacrifices has been found in southern Tajikistan in Central Asia and in the neighboring Swat Valley in Pakistan.

Thus, literary and archaeological sources were used to support each other in validating the notion of migration.

Challenging the Notion of Aryan Invasion

• Linguistic Similarities: The similarities between the Rigveda and the Avesta do not necessarily imply large-scale migration or invasion into the Indian subcontinent.
• Chalcolithic Artefacts: The occasional similarities between chalcolithic artefacts of India and those of Western Asia do not suggest a large-scale migration of people.
• Aryan Concept: The concept of an "Aryan" is vague and relates to linguistic similarities rather than any specific type of pottery or ethnic significance.
• Indo-Aryans and Harappan Civilization: Earlier scholars believed that the Indo-Aryans caused the downfall of the Harappan civilization through destruction. However, archaeological evidence indicates that the decline was not due to large-scale destruction by an invading group.
• Painted Grey Ware (PGW) and Aryans: Attempts to link PGW with the Aryans lack strong archaeological support. If PGW cultures were related to the Aryans, the pottery should have been found along the route taken by the supposed Aryan migrants.
• Geographical Confines: PGW types are confined to regions like Haryana, Upper Ganga basin, and eastern Rajasthan, challenging the invasion theory.
• Continuity Between Periods: Recent excavations have shown that Late Harappan and Painted Grey Wares existed together without breaks, suggesting continuity rather than invasion.
• Disappearance of Urban Features: What disappeared around 1750 B.C. were the urban features of the Harappan civilization, while the rural structure continued into subsequent periods.
• Regional Variations: The variations in archaeological remains of the post-Harappan period may represent regional variations in Indian chalcolithic cultures.
• Vedic 'Aryans': Archaeological evidence from the second millennium B.C. to the first millennium B.C. has led to a re-evaluation of the Vedic 'Aryans'. There is no substantial proof of large-scale migration from central or western Asia into the Indian subcontinent around 1500 B.C.
• Aryans and Harappan Civilization: There is no archaeological evidence that the Aryans destroyed the Harappan civilization or established a new Indian civilization. Conflicts mentioned in the Rigveda, such as hostilities between Aryan and non-Aryan communities, are not documented in archaeology.
• Shift in Historical Perspective: Most historians have moved away from the idea of an Aryan invasion in favor of the theory of multiple waves of Indo-Aryan migrations.
• Military Superiority: The immigrants' initial advantage may have come from superior military technology, including the use of horses and chariots, enabling them to establish political dominance in the land of the seven rivers.

Early Aryan Settlement: An Overview

The geographical references in the Rigvedic hymns shed light on the initial settlement of the Aryans in the Indian subcontinent. Although archaeological evidence is limited, the Rigveda suggests that the earliest Aryans inhabited eastern Afghanistan, Punjab, and parts of western Uttar Pradesh.

Geographical References in the Rigveda

The Rigveda mentions several rivers that were significant to the early Aryans. These include:

• Western tributaries of the Indus: Gomati (modern Gomal), Krumu (modern Kurram), and Kubha (modern Kabul).
• Suvastu (Swat): Significant for Aryan settlements, as suggested by the name meaning "fair dwellings."
• Sindhu (Indus): The most important river for the Aryans, frequently mentioned in the Rigveda.
• Other rivers: Saraswati (associated with the Ghaggar-Hakra channel), Drishadvati (Ghaggar), and the five rivers of Punjab: Shutudri (Sutlej), Vipas (Beas), Parushni (Ravi), Asikni (Chenab), and Vitasta (Jhelum).

The Rigvedic culture primarily focused on the Punjab and Delhi region, with the Sindhu River being of paramount importance. The area where the Aryans first settled is known as the Land of the Seven Rivers, encompassing the northwestern part of South Asia up to the Yamuna River.

Tribal Conflicts

The Rigveda provides insights into the conflicts faced by the Aryans, particularly with indigenous inhabitants and among themselves.

Conflict with Indigenous Inhabitants

• The Rigveda mentions the Aryan deity Indra as a warrior who defeated enemies, but the specific identities of these pre-Aryan forts are unclear.
• The Aryans were likely superior in warfare due to their introduction of horse-drawn chariots and advanced weaponry, possibly including coats of mail.
• Hostility towards the Panis, who were wealthy but refused to perform Vedic rituals and stole cattle, is evident in the Rigveda.
• The Dasas and Dasyus were even more despised. The Dasas are thought to be a branch of early Aryans, as they are mentioned in ancient Iranian literature.
• The Rigveda records the defeat of a non-Aryan named Sambara by an Aryan chief Divodasa, suggesting conflicts between Aryans and non-Aryans.
• The term dasyuhatya, or slaughter of the Dasyus, appears frequently in the Rigveda, indicating a significant conflict between the Aryans and the Dasyus.
• The Dasyus, possibly worshippers of the phallus and different in cultural practices, were seen as more hostile than the Dasas.
• Conflicts between the Rigvedic tribes and the Dasyus likely represent clashes between different branches of Indo-Aryan peoples.
• The Dasas and Dasyus, originally Aryan speakers, acquired distinct cultural traits, leading to their portrayal as 'black-skinned,' 'malignant,' and 'nonsacrificing' in the Rigveda.

Conflict Amongst Themselves

• The Aryans also engaged in conflicts among themselves, sometimes allying with non-Aryan peoples for these wars.
• The most notable tribal war mentioned in the Rigveda is the Battle of Ten Kings (dasarajna).
• In this battle, the Bharata ruling clan, led by King Sudas, faced a coalition of ten kings, consisting of five Aryan tribes and five non-Aryan peoples.
• The battle was fought on the river Parushni(identified with the river Ravi) and resulted in a victory for Sudas and the Bharata tribe.
• Following the battle, the Bharatas formed an alliance with the Purus tribe, creating a new ruling group called the Kurus.
• The Kurus, along with the Panchalas, established their rule in the upper Ganges basin and played a significant role in later Vedic times.

Expansion in the Later Vedic Period (1000-500 B.C.)

• During the Later Vedic period, the Aryans gradually moved eastward, occupying eastern Uttar Pradesh (Kosala) and north Bihar (Videha). This expansion is supported by archaeological evidence, including the discovery of nearly 700 sites associated with the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture. These sites are characterized by the use of painted grey pottery and are linked to the later Vedic people.
• The Painted Grey Ware pottery is often associated with the later Vedic society, which also utilized iron weapons. By combining evidence from later Vedic texts and PGW Iron-phase archaeology, we gain insights into the lifestyle of people in western Uttar Pradesh and surrounding areas during the first half of the first millennium B.C.
• Later Vedic texts indicate that the Aryans expanded from Punjab into western Uttar Pradesh, particularly the Ganga-Yamuna doab. The Bharatas and Purus, two major tribes, merged to form the Kuru people. Initially, they inhabited the region between the Sarasvati and Drishadvati rivers, on the fringe of the doab. Over time, the Kurus expanded to occupy Delhi and the upper doab, an area known as Kurukshetra, or the land of the Kurus.
• The Kuru tribe eventually merged with the Panchalas, who occupied the middle portion of the doab. Together, they established authority over Delhi and the upper and middle parts of the doab, with their capital at Hastinapur in the Meerut district.
• The history of the Kuru tribe is significant due to the Battle of the Bharata, the central theme of the epic Mahabharata. This war, believed to have occurred around 950 B.C., was fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, both of whom belonged to the Kuru clan. The conflict led to the near-extinction of the Kuru clan.
• Excavations at Hastinapur, dated between 900 B.C. and 500 B.C., reveal the presence of settlements and early signs of town life. However, these findings do not align with the description of Hastinapur in the Mahabharata, as the epic was compiled much later, around the fourth century A.D., when material conditions had significantly advanced.
• By the end of the later Vedic period, around 600 B.C., the Vedic people expanded further east into Koshala in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Videha in north Bihar. In these regions, they encountered peoples using copper implements and black-and-red earthen pots. In western Uttar Pradesh, they faced groups using ochre or red pottery and copper implements, as well as communities with black-and-red ware. Some encounters may have involved remnants of the late Harappan culture, but these groups represented a diverse cultural amalgamation rather than a purely Harappan identity.
• Despite these challenges, the later Vedic peoples succeeded in their expansion due to their use of iron weapons and horse-drawn chariots. The primary route of Aryan expansion eastward is believed to have been along the Himalayan foothills, north of the Ganga, although south of the river was also a viable area for expansion.
• The clearing of land for settlement was initially accomplished through fire. A notable passage from the Shatapatha Brahmana describes how the fire god Agni moved eastward, burning the land until he reached the river Sadanira (modern Gandak). There, he was followed by the chieftain Videha Mathava, who facilitated the crossing of Agni over the river, leading to the Aryanization of the land of Videha.
• This legend illustrates the process of land clearance by burning, followed by the establishment of new settlements by migrating warrior-peasants. The use of fire for land clearance may have been complemented by iron axes for cutting forests in certain areas. Iron, referred to in literature as shyama ayas(dark or black metal), has been found at excavated sites like Atranjikhera and Jakhera in western Uttar Pradesh and surrounding regions, dating to the later Vedic period.
• While the number of iron agricultural tools and implements is lower than that of weapons, some scholars argue against the significance of iron technology in land clearance, suggesting no connection between technological development and social change.
• Aryan expansion also occurred in the south, although the chronology of migration in this direction is uncertain. The establishment of large kingdoms such as Sattwata in Vidarbha, the Dandaka Kingdom near Nasik, and the Mulaka and Ashmaka Kingdoms along the Godavari river, illustrates the extension of Aryan influence in the south by the end of the Vedic age.