French Revolution: The Consulate (1799-1804) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Consulate (1799-1804)

Napoleon's overthrow of the Directory led to a revision of the constitution, resulting in the Consular Constitution. This new framework, crafted by Sieyes and amended by Napoleon, established the structure of the Consulate.

Main Features of the Consular Constitution

• Executive Power: Vested in three consuls elected by the Senate for ten years. The First Consul held significant authority, including the power to make war and peace and appoint key officials. The other two consuls had a consultative role.
• Legislative Functions: Divided among three bodies:
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  • Council of State: Responsible for drafting laws and bills.
  • Tribunate: Discussed laws and bills without voting.
  • Legislative Body: Voted on laws and bills without discussion.
• Senate: A fourth body with higher authority, composed of sixty members. The Senate rejected or ratified measures from the Legislative Body and elected consuls, members of the Tribunate, and the Legislative Body. Members of the Council of State were nominated by the First Consul.

The constitution, although appearing to establish a popular government, concentrated power in the hands of the First Consul. The divisions in legislative functions minimized the influence of the Tribunate and the Legislative Body. The Senate and the Council of State, both under the First Consul's control, became tools of his authority. While France was a republic in name, the government operated as a veiled monarchy. Under this constitution, Napoleon was elected as the First Consul, taking significant steps toward establishing himself as Emperor.

Foreign Policy of the Consulate

Napoleon’s Second Italian Campaign:

• Addressing the Second Coalition: The Consulate's priority was to confront the Second Coalition against France and reclaim lost territories during Napoleon's absence in Egypt.
• Defeating Austria: Napoleon decisively defeated the Austrians, reclaiming all of Italy swiftly (1800). Through the Peace of Luneville (1801), Austria confirmed all territorial cessions made to France.
• Diplomatic Maneuvers Against England: With Austria defeated, England remained the last holdout of the coalition. Unable to confront England at sea, Napoleon turned to diplomacy, leveraging the grievances of neutral powers against England. British ships had been searching neutral vessels for French goods.
• Formation of the Armed Neutrality: Napoleon encouraged the Czar to revive the Armed Neutrality against England, involving Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Denmark. The league aimed to prevent England from searching neutral ships for French goods.
• Disruption of the Armed Neutrality: The English fleet bombarded Copenhagen and captured the Danish fleet to prevent it from falling into Napoleon's hands. The assassination of the Czar of Russia further weakened the coalition, thwarting Napoleon's plans.
• French Reverses and Peace Negotiations: Following French setbacks, including the British success in Egypt, Napoleon sought peace with England. Both parties, weary of war, were inclined towards an agreement.
• Peace of Amiens (1802): England restored most conquests from France and her allies, except for Ceylon and Trinidad, and promised to evacuate Malta. France agreed to evacuate Naples, the Papal States, and return Egypt to the Sultan of Turkey.
• Favorable Terms for France: The Peace of Amiens was advantageous for France, as England tacitly recognized French predominance on the Continent. England acknowledged Napoleon's annexations in Europe and refrained from intervening in continental affairs without compensation or guarantees of non-aggression.
• Shift in British Policy: England, which had initially sought to exclude France from Belgium in 1793, ended up accepting French dominance in Belgium by 1802.
• Imbalance in Peace Settlements: The peace was favorable for France despite England's lack of serious reverses. France retained all its European conquests, while England surrendered most of her overseas gains. The Peace of Amiens did not reflect the true balance of power in Europe.

Reforms of Napoleon under the Consulate (1799-1804)

Objective of his reforms:

• During the brief period of peace following the treaties of Luneville and Amiens, Napoleon focused on reorganizing the government of France and rebuilding the social order.
• His goals were to heal the nation's wounds, ensure administrative efficiency, and promote social and fiscal "Equality."
• However, he opposed the principle of "Liberty," recognizing that it had contributed to chaos in the past.
• To restore peace and order, he established a strong centralized government, evident in his reorganization of local governance.

Economic Reforms:

• Financial administration and taxation: Napoleon overhauled these critical areas inherited from the old regime.
• Bank of France: Founded in 1800, it was initially an independent corporation but gained the monopoly on issuing bank-notes in 1803, becoming one of the world's soundest financial institutions.
• Tax Collection: The system was centralized and made more efficient by Gaudin, moving away from autonomous local authorities.
• Abolition of Guild System: Napoleon abolished the guild system, viewing it as a source of corruption and indiscipline.
• Dispute Settlement: An Industrial Committee was formed, favoring merchants, and machines were imported for rapid industrialization.
• Infrastructure: Over 299 roads were constructed to improve connectivity, and trade and industry were encouraged.

Educational Reforms:

• Primary Schools: Managed by communes, these schools were under public control with no state oversight.
• Grammar Schools: Supervised by the Central Government, teaching Latin, Greek, and French.
• High Schools: Established for higher education in big towns, with government-determined courses and teacher appointments.
• Vocational Schools: Provided vocational training, along with military schools ("Lycee") and a Normal School for teacher training.
• Teacher Training: Teachers were encouraged to identify and promote students with special talents to ensure a pool of qualified leaders.

Socio-Cultural Reforms:

• Social Equality: Napoleon proclaimed social equality for all French citizens, a significant achievement of the French Revolution.
• Policy of Conciliation: He aimed to gain the support of various community sections by eliminating party distinctions, allowing emigres and non-juring clergy to return.
• Reconciliation with the Church (Concordat): To mend relations with the populace, Napoleon restored the Roman Catholic Church through the Concordat of 1801, recognizing Catholicism as the dominant religion while allowing religious freedom for all.
• Legion of Honour: This new aristocracy of merit satisfied the French admiration for glory and loyalty.

Politico-Administrative Reforms:

• Napoleon established a "Modern State" based on equality, rule of law, and secularism, emphasizing merit in state appointments.
• He promoted Fraternity to heal national wounds, allowing emigres to return without fear.
• A Central Secretariat was created for state management, and a new civil service called Auditeur was established for administration.
• Centralization of Local Government: Local councils were diminished, placing departments and smaller units under the control of prefects, sub-prefects, and mayors appointed by Napoleon.

Napoleonic Code of 1804:

• Napoleon's Civil Code, known as Code Napoleon, was a significant achievement in internal reconstruction.
• Pre-revolutionary France faced a confusing array of laws, prompting Napoleon to unify the legal system under a single set of clear laws.
• The Napoleonic Code, consisting of 2,287 articles, provided coherent laws on property, colonial affairs, family, and individual rights.
• The Code included rights such as freedom of speech, public trials, freedom to worship, and government jobs based on merit.
• It established social equality before the law, ensured religious toleration, and preserved many social gains from the Revolution.
• The Code respected Roman law traditions while promoting a modern legal framework.
• Napoleon’s Code influenced many nations and accelerated the end of feudalism in Western and Central Europe, laying the groundwork for modern nation-states.
• The Napoleonic Code served as a model for civil law countries and continues to impact legal systems worldwide.
• Despite his military defeats, Napoleon’s civilian reforms had a lasting impact, establishing him as the "Architect of Modern Europe."

Miscellaneous:

• In addition to institutional reforms, the Consulate achieved a silent but constructive transformation.
• Bonaparte instilled discipline and order in France, eliminating brigandage and securing life and property.
• The Consulate initiated a healing process in French society, laying the groundwork for public order and efficient government.
• Historian David Thomson noted that between 1800 and 1803, Napoleon focused on internal reorganization with the same decisiveness and action he had shown in military affairs.
• He enlisted capable individuals from diverse backgrounds, aiming for a systematic reconstruction of France’s legal, financial, and administrative institutions.
• Unlike his ephemeral military conquests, Napoleon’s civilian work left a lasting legacy, establishing him as a prominent figure in European history.

Significance of the Consulate

The Consulate aimed to secure the gains of the French Revolution by establishing a legal system based on the principles of 1789.

• The Civil Code eliminated aristocratic privileges, ensuring legal equality.
• The Concordat between Napoleon and the Pope acknowledged the revolutionary sale of Church property, protecting peasants' land acquired during the Revolution.
• The Concordat also resolved ecclesiastical conflicts that had weakened the Revolution.

The Consulate solidified the revolutionary changes in France's social and economic structures, removing feudalism, privileges, and social anomalies.

An Estimate of Napoleon's Statesmanship

Napoleon restored peace and order by addressing the issues left by the Revolution. His domestic policies represented a comprehensive reconstruction of France and demonstrated his administrative talent, nearly on par with his military skills.

• His reforms spanned religion, government, legal justice, and education, reflecting his ability to rise above factional disputes and understand the country's needs.
• His primary goals were to reestablish order, confidence, and respect for authority.
• Financial reforms and the creation of the Bank of France restored financial stability.
• The repeal of decrees against emigres and other oppressive Jacobin laws restored social confidence.
• The Concordat healed the church schism, and the Civil Code promoted civil equality and religious tolerance.
• By opening career opportunities based on talent and abolishing aristocratic privileges, Napoleon consolidated the Revolution's gains and emerged as a significant social reformer.

His civilian achievements in France are seen as enduring, in contrast to his temporary military conquests.

How Far Napoleon Was True to His Revolution

• Napoleon's reorganization of French institutions reflected both his inheritance of revolutionary ideals and his reaction against certain aspects of the Revolution.
• He opposed the revolutionary principle of liberty but embraced equality in social and fiscal matters, as evident in his Civil Code.
• His reforms promoted equality by allowing equal opportunities for all, regardless of privilege.
• However, he restricted political liberty, viewing it as a hindrance to state efficiency. He curtailed freedoms of speech and press, centralized administration, and imposed prefects on departments, undermining local self-governance.
• Despite centralizing and organizing governance, which resembled the pre-revolutionary regime, he was also seen as a destroyer of revolutionary gains.
• His approach to public works, colonial restoration, and political centralization echoed the methods of Louis XIV and Colbert.
• While the Revolution embraced the idea of nationality, Napoleon's foreign policies, particularly towards Germany and Spain, were seen as anti-national.

Napoleon Proclaimed as Emperor

• Napoleon's statement about finding the crown of France reflects how he seized power in a chaotic France through a combination of favorable circumstances and his abilities. His rise was more due to chance than a well-laid plan. After numerous political experiments, the French public had become weary of political turmoil and desired stability. Napoleon, having proven himself as a capable general, emerged as a symbol of order and authority. He was seen as a protector of the Revolution's achievements, particularly in land, taxation, and justice, and a safeguard against the return of the old aristocracy.
• The Directory, preceding Napoleon’s rise, was marked by weaknesses such as constitutional flaws, ineffective leadership, and rising commodity prices. Its inability to manage internal disorder and its reliance on the military for survival made it unpopular. Napoleon’s military successes, especially against Austria and Sardinia, and his earlier leadership in foreign campaigns, established him as a national hero. Despite some failures, like the Egyptian expedition, his return to France was met with acclaim.
• The Directory's foreign successes were largely attributed to Napoleon's military genius, but its internal failures made the public seek a savior in him. In 1799, exploiting the Directory's vulnerabilities with the help of Abbe Sieyes, Napoleon orchestrated its downfall, established the Consulate, and became the dominant force in France. Initially, power was shared among three Consuls, but Napoleon, as the First Consul, held the most power. He was later made Consul for life through a national plebiscite and declared himself Emperor in 1804.

His rise to power involved several steps:

• As the First Consul, he held supreme executive power.
• His reforms strengthened his position and gained him support from various groups.
• The Legion of Honour he established laid the groundwork for a new aristocracy loyal to him, moving towards imperialism.
• In 1802, his election as consul for life solidified his absolute rule and set the stage for the throne.
• After surviving an assassination attempt by royalists, he eliminated royalist threats, enhancing his prominence.
• He officially became Emperor in May 1804, with the change ratified by a popular plebiscite.

Reasons for France's Submission to Napoleon's Monarchical Rule

• It might seem contradictory that France, after dismantling the Bourbon monarchy, would willingly return to hereditary absolutism under Napoleon. However, this paradox can be easily understood.
• The French people were exhausted from the tumultuous events they had recently endured. They were fed up with the relentless cycle of political experiments, none of which provided them with peace and security. After a decade of war and revolution, their primary desire was for peace and a stable government. They recognized that only a strong military leader could free France from the chaos of factionalism and establish a period of orderly progress.
• Consequently, they turned to Napoleon with a sense of relief, believing he was the only individual capable of restoring discipline and respect for authority, something that previous governments had failed to achieve. Furthermore, Napoleon was a product of the Revolution, and his rule assured the people that aristocratic privileges would not be reinstated and that they would retain ownership of the lands acquired through revolutionary means.
• In reality, Napoleon did safeguard the most valued outcomes of the Revolution, which helped the French people reconcile with his rule. It is important to note that the French Revolution was driven more by social injustices and economic inequalities than by political grievances. Therefore, when Napoleon ensured equality in terms of equal opportunity, the French people were willing to forgo some of their liberty.

Additionally, Napoleon's charismatic personality and remarkable military victories played a significant role. The French people were enamored with glory, and they experienced plenty of it under Napoleon's leadership.