Harappan Trade | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Urban Economy in the Harappan Civilization

Urban Centers and Non-Food Producing Activities
In urban centers, a significant portion of the population was engaged in non-food producing activities. These included:

• Administrative functions
• Religious activities
• Trading
• Manufacturing

However, since urban centers did not produce their own food, they relied on the surrounding countryside for food supplies.

City-Village Relationship

The relationship between cities and villages was marked by inequality. Cities, by developing as centers of administration or religion, attracted wealth from the entire region. This wealth was extracted from the hinterland in the form of:

• Taxes
• Tributes
• Gifts
• Purchases of goods

In Harappan society, this wealth was controlled by the most powerful segments of urban society.

Luxury and Social Superiority

The wealthy and powerful sections of Harappan cities led luxurious lives, reflecting their social superiority through:

• Impressive buildings
• Acquisition of luxury items not locally available

This desire for luxury items drove cities to establish contacts with distant lands, catering to the needs of the rich and powerful.

• Outposts and Economic Interdependence: Harappan outposts found in far-flung areas like Shortughai in Afghanistan and Bhagatrav in Gujarat were likely a result of economic interdependence and trade networks between different regions.
• Linking Regions Through Resources : Differential access to basic resources such as agricultural products, minerals, and timber was crucial in linking various regions of the Indus Valley. Establishing trade routes facilitated this connection.
• Expansion and Trade Networks: Emerging from the fertile Indus-Hakra plains, the affluent Harappans sought possession of luxury items, leading them to strengthen ties with Central Asia and Afghanistan. They also established settlements in areas like Gujarat and the Gangetic Valley.

Trade System and Weights

• The presence of an elaborate social structure, high standard of living, granaries, numerous seals, uniform script, and regulated weights and measures across a wide area indicates a highly developed trade system in the Harappan civilization.
• Excavations revealed the use of stone weights by the Harappans. These weights were cubical, with the basic unit being 16 (approximately 14 grams). Larger weights were multiples of 16, while smaller ones were fractions of 16.
• The Harappans traded not only within India but also with regions far beyond, including Egypt, Babylon, and Afghanistan.

Internal Trade

Granaries and Food Supply

• Granaries found in Harappa and Mohenjodaro show that the rulers aimed to secure a reliable food supply.
• Food grains were likely collected from nearby villages and stored in these granaries for redistribution to townspeople.
• Grains, being a bulk commodity consumed daily, required vast quantities to be transported, probably using bullock carts and boats.
• Transporting large quantities of food over long distances was challenging, which is why towns were usually situated in fertile areas to facilitate easier collection from surrounding villages.
• For instance, Mohenjodaro was located in the fertile Larkana district of Sind, though some settlements emerged along important trade routes or industrial sites, where location was determined by trade and exchange potential rather than agricultural fertility.

Villages and Towns

• Villages provided essential food grains and raw materials to towns, but what did Harappan towns offer in return?
• One possibility is that town rulers used force to collect grains as tax, supposedly in exchange for administration services.
• However, a key aspect of the rural-urban relationship was the urban centers’ ability to collect a variety of items not available locally and supply them to the rural hinterland.
• For example, towns supplied parallel-sided stone blades made from high-quality stone, which was not locally available. This stone was sourced from places like Sukkur in Sind.
• Archaeological evidence shows that during the urban phase of Harappa, people in sites like Rangapur in Gujarat used stone tools from distant areas. After the decline of Harappan Civilization, these areas began using tools made from local stones.
• Other important items included copper and bronze tools, which were found at almost all Harappan sites despite copper being available only in specific regions. The uniformity in design and execution of these tools across sites suggests centralized production and distribution, likely managed by merchants or administrators in towns.
• In addition to economically significant items, Harappan settlements yielded objects made of gold, silver, and various precious and semi-precious stones, indicating a rich trade network.
• The advent of urbanism led to a significant increase in the scale and variety of trade within the Harappan civilization. Evidence from sites like Mohenjodaro suggests extensive bead-making, with products reaching the elite in smaller villages and towns.
• Harappans engaged in trade of stone, metal, shell, and other goods within the Indus culture zone, often through barter rather than metal money.

Sources of Major Raw Materials

• Excavations at various Harappan sites have uncovered numerous bangles, beads, potteries, and various copper, bronze, and stone objects. The diversity of objects suggests the use of different metals and precious stones, indicating they were not uniformly available across regions.
• Even in minor Harappan sites, the presence of precious stones and metal tools points to an intensive exchange network catering to the affluent. The discovery of factory sites in the limestone hills of Sukkur and Rohri, where chert blades were mass-produced and distributed to various Harappan settlements in Sindh, further supports this.
• The Khetri deposits of Rajasthan were likely a significant source of copper, and there were connections between the copper-manufacturing Ganeshwar–Jodhpura culture and the Harappan civilization. Archaeologists believe the Harappans imported copper tools from these areas, where people were still primarily pastoralists and hunters.
• Lead and zinc probably came from Rajasthan, while some copper needs may have been met from sources in Baluchistan and North-West Frontier Provinces. Tin was sourced from the Tosam area of modern Haryana, with other possible sources being Afghanistan and Central Asia. Gold may have been obtained from the Kolar fields of Karnataka through trade with neolithic people or panned from Indus sands.
• Most semi-precious stones used for bead manufacture came from Gujarat, except lapis lazuli, sourced from Badakshan in Northeast Afghanistan. Harappans exploited this source, as evidenced by the discovery of Harappan sites like Shortughai and Altyn-Depe in the area. Turquoise and jade were likely obtained from Central Asia.
• Cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Lothal were significant centers for metallurgy, producing tools, weapons, kitchenware, and other objects for widespread distribution. Lead may have been sourced from Kashmir, Rajasthan, or South India, while silver vessels, commonly found at Harappan sites, may have been imported from Afghanistan, Iran, or acquired through trade with Mesopotamians. Sea-shells were likely sourced from the sea-coast of Gujarat and western India.
• Manda in Jammu, located where the Chenab river becomes navigable, may have supplied quality timber to the Central Indus Valley via rivers.

Mode of Transport for People and Goods

• Traders likely transported goods over long distances using caravans of pack animals such as oxen, sheep, goats, and donkeys. Two-wheeled carts were a crucial mode of transport, with evidence from terracotta models of bullock carts and copper or bronze models of carts with drivers found at Harappa and Chanhudaro.
• For longer journeys through wooded areas, caravans of pack-oxen were the primary means of transport. Towards the end of the mature Harappan phase, evidence of camel use appears, while horse use seems absent.
• Riverine traffic was also significant, with some important sites located in relation to trade routes of the time. Boats, depicted on seals and moulded tablets, were used for transportation, with clay models found at Harappa and Lothal showing features like cabins, ladders, and high-seated platforms for navigation.
• Ships were also used for transporting goods from production centers to cities, with representations discovered on seals or as graffiti at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and a terracotta model from Lothal. The dockyard discovered at Lothal indicates the use of ships and boats for trade. The Arabian Sea coastline had several sea-ports, with places like Rangapur, Somnath, and Balakot serving as outlets for the Harappans.
• Even in the inhospitable Makran coast, Harappan sites like Sutkagen-Dor and Sutkakoh were established, likely because they were safe from monsoon storms and currents, serving as outlets during monsoon months. This coastal extension provided Harappan ships with anchorage points up to the Persian Gulf.

Major Trade Routes

• Trade routes were reconstructed by analyzing geographical landscape, settlement patterns, and the distribution of raw materials and finished products. Major trade routes connected areas like Sindh and south Baluchistan, coastal Sindh, upper Sindh, and the central Indus plains, the Indus plains and Rajasthan, Sindh and east Punjab, east Punjab and Rajasthan, and Sindh and Gujarat.
• The route linking north Afghanistan, the Gomal plain, and Multan, with a feeder route to the Taxila valley, remained important. Riverine traffic was also evident, with a coastal route connecting Gujarat sites like Lothal and Dholavira to sites like Sutkagen-dor on the Makran coast.
• The location of significant sites often correlated with trade routes, as seen in Mohenjodaro, situated at the intersection of the Indus water-route and the east-west land route linking the Quetta valley and the Bolan river to Kot Diji.

Commodities Traded

• Traders were actively involved in trading grains and other food products between villages and cities. For instance, rice was imported from Gujarat to Punjab, while Lothal and Surkotada supplied cotton for the growing townships of Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Banawali, etc.
• Balakot and Chanhudaro were known for shell-working and bangle-making, and Lothal and Chanhudaro were key centers for manufacturing beads of carnelian, among other commodities.
• Trade appears to have been more an administrative activity than a trader-driven exchange, as establishing a colony 500 km away would be challenging for individual traders. It was primarily the administrators of Harappa who aimed to control resources from distant areas directly.

External Trade

In addition to internal trade, the Harappans engaged in commerce with their western neighbors. Coastal towns like Lothal, Surkotada, and Balakot played a crucial role in connecting the Harappan civilization with Mesopotamia and other sites in West Asia.

Trade Routes

• Overland Routes: Two main overland routes linked the Harappan civilization with West Asia:
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  • Northern Route: Passed through northern Afghanistan, north Iran, Turkmenistan, and into Mesopotamia.
  • Southern Route: Went through Tepe Yahya, Jalalabad, and Ur.
• Sea Route in the Persian Gulf: Trade from the Indus region to Mesopotamia occurred via the Persian Gulf, passing through Dilmun (Bahrain) and Makan (Oman).

Trade Relations with Mesopotamia

• Mesopotamian records from 2350 BC onwards mention trade with Meluha, the ancient name for the Indus region. Meluha was described as a land of seafarers, indicating maritime trade.
• The depiction of ships and boats on seals further supports this maritime trade.

Important Maritime Sites

• Sutkagen-dor, Balakot, and Dabarkot: These sites were significant points along the maritime route to Mesopotamia.
• Lothal, Kuntasi, Dholavira, and coastal Kutch sites: These locations played a vital role in maritime trade.

Trade with Turkmenistan

• Harappan and Harappan-related objects were discovered in south Turkmenistan at sites like Altyn Depe and Khapuz.
• These artifacts included ivory dice, metal objects, terracotta figures, and a Harappan seal bearing the Harappan script.
• The evidence from Altyn Depe, particularly the rectangular Harappan seal, is significant.

Trade with Afghanistan

• The most notable evidence of trade with Afghanistan comes from a Harappan outpost at Shortughai, which facilitated trade with Central Asia.

Trade with Iran

• Several sites in Iran, such as Hissar, Shah Tepe, and Jalalabad, yielded Harappan and Harappan-related artifacts.
• These artifacts mainly consisted of seals and carnelian beads.

Trade with the Persian Gulf

• Harappan seals and writing were found at Failaka in the Persian Gulf.
• Artifacts like jar fragments with Harappan writing were discovered at various sites in the Persian Gulf.

Trade with Bahrain

• Harappan-related artifacts, including seals and mirrors, were found at Ras-al-Qala in Bahrain.
• Excavations near Hamad in Bahrain revealed typical Harappan seals and beads.

Trade with the Oman Peninsula

• Harappan artifacts, such as carnelian beads, were found at sites like Umm-an-Nar in the Oman Peninsula.
• Sites like Maysar showed Harappan influence.
• Major imports from Oman included copper, shell, and chloride vessels.
• Harappan exports to Oman included beads, weights, and ivory objects.

Trade with Mesopotamia

• There is both literary and archaeological evidence for Harappan trade with Mesopotamia.
• Mesopotamian texts mention Meluhha, identified with the Indus Valley, and refer to merchants from Meluhha living in Mesopotamia.
• Archaeological evidence includes Harappan seals and beads found at Mesopotamian sites.
• Certain motifs on Mesopotamian seals show Harappan influence.
• Harappan cylinder seals with Indian motifs were found in Mesopotamia.

Harappan Exports to Mesopotamia

• Harappan exports included lapis lazuli, carnelian, gold, silver, copper, ebony, ivory, tortoiseshell, and domesticated animals.

Mesopotamian Exports to Harappa

• Mesopotamian exports included fish, grain, raw wool, garments, and silver.

Assessment of Harappan Trade with Mesopotamia

• Scholars have debated the extent and significance of Harappan trade with Mesopotamia.
• Some argue that the trade was not direct, extensive, or intensive, while others highlight the importance of lapis lazuli trade.
• The Harappan civilization was resource-rich, reducing the need for extensive long-distance trade.

In summary, the Harappan civilization engaged in extensive trade networks with neighboring regions, including Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Iran, the Persian Gulf, Bahrain, the Oman Peninsula, and Mesopotamia. Trade routes included overland and maritime paths, facilitating the exchange of various goods and artifacts.

Exchange System

• The Harappans had established a vast network of inter-regional trade both within and outside the Indian subcontinent. However, the exact mechanisms of exchange between the Harappans and non-Harappans remain unclear. This extensive area of interaction involved communities with diverse lifestyles. During this period, large parts of the country were inhabited by hunter-gatherers, while other areas were occupied by pastoral nomads, and some regions were just beginning to practice agriculture. In comparison, the Harappans represented a more advanced stage of civilization.
• To exploit mineral resources from regions inhabited by hunter-gatherers or other communities, the Harappans sometimes established settlements in these areas. However, this was not always feasible. It is likely that non-Harappan communities were offered items they considered valuable in exchange for resources.

The Exchange System Among Harappan Towns

• The Harappans made distinct efforts to regulate trade and exchange among themselves.
• Even distant Harappan sites exhibited uniform systems of weights and measures.
• The weight system followed a binary pattern in lower denominations, such as 1, 2, 4, 8, and so on, progressing to decimal multiples like 16, 320, 640, 1600, and 3200.
• Weights, typically cubical in shape, were crafted from materials like chert, limestone, and steatite.
• Measures of length were based on a foot unit of 37.6 cm and a cubit unit of approximately 51.8 to 53.6 cm.
• This uniformity in weights and measures suggests an attempt by central authorities to regulate exchanges among Harappans and possibly with non-Harappans as well.

Seals and Sealings

• Seals and sealings were discovered in large quantities at Harappan settlements.
• These seals, often featuring intaglio designs of various animals and an undeciphered script, were used to mark ownership and guarantee product quality for long-distance trade.
• Many sealings bore impressions of cords and matting, indicating they were originally affixed to bales of merchandise.
• At Lothal, numerous sealings were found among ashes in warehouse ventilation shafts, suggesting they were discarded after unpacking imported goods.

Location of Harappan Sites Based on Agriculture and Trade

• Some scholars believe Harappa was strategically located between a zone of agricultural settlements to the south and a zone of pastoral nomads to the northwest, allowing it to exploit resources from both communities.
• Despite lacking advantages in food production, Harappa may have grown into a large city due to its strategic position as a trading settlement.
• Within a 300 km radius, Harappans had access to:
• Hindukush and North-West Frontier: Sources of precious stones like turquoise and lapis lazuli.
• Mineral Salt: Accessible from the salt range.
• Tin and Copper: Obtained from Rajasthan.
• Amethyst and Gold: Possibly sourced from Kashmir.
• Panjab River Transport: Control over the confluence of the five rivers of Punjab, facilitating river transport.
• Timber: Access to timber from the mountainous regions of Kashmir.

Mohenjodaro and Lothal also had strategic locations:

• Mohenjodaro: Closer to the sea than Harappa, facilitating access to the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia, likely sources of silver.
• Lothal: Drawing resources from Southern Rajasthan and the Deccan, possibly aiding in the procurement of gold from Karnataka, where contemporary Neolithic sites have been found near gold mines.

Functions Performed in Cities of the Harappan Civilization

• Balakot: Located on the coast of Baluchistan, Balakot became a center for shell-working and bangle making, showcasing the Harappans' skill in crafting ornamental items from local resources.
• Chanhu-daro: This site, also in Sind, specialized in producing beads from materials like carnelian and agate. The discovery of unfinished lapis lazuli beads suggests that the Harappans imported precious stones from distant places, processed them, and then sold them, indicating a complex trade network and craftsmanship.
• Lothal: Similar to Chanhu-daro, Lothal was known for its bead production. The presence of various craft specialists in these cities highlights the Harappans' advanced skills in working with different materials.
• Mohenjodaro: This major city yielded evidence of various craft specialists, including stone workers, potters, copper and bronze workers, brick-makers, seal-cutters, and beadmakers. The diversity of crafts indicates a highly organized and specialized economy, where different artisans contributed to the city's wealth and trade.

These cities played crucial roles in the Harappan economy, each contributing through specialized crafts and trade, reflecting the civilization's complexity and interconnectedness.