How important were other fronts? | History for GCSE/IGCSE - Year 11 PDF Download

Who won the War at Sea?

• The Royal Navy, known as Britain's navy, stood out as the strongest naval force globally.
• Britain's need for a formidable navy stemmed from its imperative to safeguard its vast empire.
• A naval arms race ensued pre-1914 due to Germany's ambitious naval construction program. Both nations raced to construct as many Dreadnoughts as possible.
• The primary focus of the British navy was to maintain open supply lines with its trade partners while blockading Germany.
• The German High Seas Fleet of the German navy relied more on U-boats (submarines) than their Dreadnoughts due to the latter's high value.
• During 1914-1915, a series of minor naval engagements occurred:
  • The German fleet bombed Scarborough, Whitby, and Hartlepool in December 1914.
  • The Battle of Heligoland Bight took place in August 1914, where the British navy attacked the German naval base at Heligoland, resulting in the deaths of 700 individuals.
  • The Battle of Coronel occurred in November 1914.
  • The Battle of the Falkland Islands happened in December 1914.
• Battle of Jutland — 31 May - 1 June 1916:
  • The Battle of Jutland, occurring on 31 May - 1 June 1916, stands out as the sole major naval confrontation during World War I. In a strategic turn, Britain managed to intercept the German strategy, facilitated by a German soldier whose radio codes were discovered on a Russian shore.
  • Admiral von Scheer of Germany aimed to entice the British fleet away from its stronghold, intending to encircle and weaken them by maximally destroying their vessels. This tactic sought to diminish the British naval blockade against Germany.
  • Forewarned about the German plan, the British Fleet's commander positioned a smaller fleet at the designated German rendezvous point. The Germans were drawn into this trap, where the main British Navy awaited. In terms of numbers, the British fleet surpassed the German fleet.
  • The naval combat persisted for three days, with Scheer eventually retreating to Germany once the assault ceased. Despite more British ships being sunk, the British declared victory as the Germans retreated. Subsequently, post-1916, Britain enforced a naval blockade on Germany, intensifying food and resource scarcities for the German populace. In a countermove, Germany attempted to blockade Britain, but their efforts were unsuccessful.

Unrestricted Submarine Warfare

• Initially, Germany refrained from targeting civilian and neutral ships at the start of the war.
• After a failed blockade in 1915, Germany resorted to unrestricted submarine warfare, targeting both military and civilian vessels around Britain.
• This strategy resulted in food shortages in Britain, which heavily relied on imports for 60% of its food consumption, leading to the implementation of food rationing.
• In 1917, German submarines sank 2.7 million tonnes of shipping, exacerbating the situation for the British.

The British strategies used to counter German efforts

• Q Ships: These were military vessels disguised as merchant ships, aiming to lure German U-boats to the surface for attack. While this tactic had its merits, it also resulted in many Q ships being sunk by the U-boats.
• Mines: These were strategically laid across the sea bed to target German U-boats. Minesweepers were used to clear these mines, posing a significant threat to the U-boats.
• Convoy System: Proposed by Lloyd George, this strategy involved battleships sailing in convoys alongside merchant ships across the Atlantic. This method aimed to provide protection and enhance the safety of the ships.
• Depth Charges: These were explosives dropped from aircraft that would detonate upon reaching a specific depth. The force of the explosion was designed to damage U-boats by affecting their structural integrity, even if not precisely targeted.
• Impact of Unrestricted U-boat Warfare: The aggressive U-boat tactics, including the sinking of the Lusitania (a British ship with American passengers), played a pivotal role in pressuring the United States to enter the war.

Why did the Gallipoli campaign of 1915 fail?

What was the Gallipoli campaign?

• The Gallipoli campaign aimed to push Turkey, an ally of Germany, out of World War I and to open the Dardanelles strait for a supply route to Russia.
• Churchill convinced the British government to initiate a naval assault followed by a major offensive on the Turkish capital in the East. He hoped this victory would lead to the surrender of the Ottoman Empire.

It failed because:

• Turkish forces were well prepared for the Allied offensive, having prior knowledge and sufficient troops.
• Lord Kitchener only provided half the necessary troops, leading to insufficient manpower.
• Planning by Ian Hamilton, the campaign leader, was inadequate and poorly executed.
• The British lacked familiarity with the terrain and did not possess adequate maps, giving the Turks an advantage.
• Inexperienced Anzac troops from Australia and New Zealand were ineffective in combat.
• The Allies' delayed preparations allowed the Ottoman forces time to fortify their positions.
• Turkish machine gunners had a clear line of fire on the Allied troops during the landing.
• The Anzacs faced challenges during landing due to strong currents diverting their boats off course.
• The unfamiliar landscape, characterized by narrow beaches and high cliffs, posed strategic difficulties.
• The Turkish army, trained by a German general, demonstrated superior preparedness and skill.
• Poor communication, exacerbated by Hamilton's distance from the front lines, hindered coordination.
• The Allies underestimated the capabilities of the Turkish forces, leading to strategic miscalculations.
• Harsh weather conditions and food shortages weakened the morale and effectiveness of the soldiers.
• Hamilton's replacement and subsequent withdrawal of forces from Turkish territories in January 1916 marked the end of the campaign.

Results of the Gallipoli Campaign

• The ill-fated expedition ended in failure, resulting in significant casualties on both sides.
• The expedition's failure had notable political repercussions:
  • The head of the Royal Navy resigned.
  • Winston Churchill also resigned from government, although he wasn't serving as Prime Minister at the time.
  • Lloyd George assumed the role of Prime Minister following these events.

Why Russia Withdrew from the War in 1918?

• Lack of Cooperation Among Russian Commanders
• Shortages in Rifles, Ammunition, and Boots within the Russian Army
• Inadequate Training in Modern Weaponry and Tactics
• Unencoded Messages Led to German Interception
• Internal Unrest in Russia Catalyzing the Russian Revolution
• Resignation of Grand Duke Nikolai as Commander, Replaced by the Tsar
• Significant Defeats to the Germans, including the Battles of Tannenberg (Aug 1914) and Masurian Lakes (Sept 1914)
• Harsh conditions prevailed on the front lines.
• The government struggled to coordinate the war effort efficiently.

Impact of the Conflict on Russia

• War had negative repercussions on the royal family, as the Tsar led the army.
• In 1917, the Russian Revolution led to the overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II and the provisional Government by the Bolsheviks.
• The Bolsheviks made an armistice with Germany in December 1917, resulting in Russia's exit from the war.
• Germany benefited from Russia's withdrawal by moving troops to the Western Front.
• Despite this advantage, the British Naval Blockade caused food shortages in Germany, leading to public discontent and opposition to the war effort.
• The United States joined the war on the side of the Allies.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1917)

• Loss of 90% of coal mines
• Loss of 25% of both industrial capacity and population
• Ceding of Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Belarus, and Ukraine
• Relinquishment of Turkish territories acquired during the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-1878, to be returned to the Ottoman Empire.

What was the impact of war on civilian populations?

• Defense of the Realm Act (DORA) - Britain:
  • Enforced press censorship to control information flow during wartime.
  • Introduced Daylight Saving Time (DST) to maximize daylight hours for productivity.
  • Implemented food rationing to ensure equitable distribution of scarce resources.
  • Reduced licensing hours for pubs to discourage excessive drinking.
  • Allowed for imprisonment without trial under certain circumstances.
• Impact on Food and Resources:
  • Conscription was introduced in most countries except Britain in 1914.
  • Conscription mandated service for all single men aged 18-41 starting in January 1916.
  • Extended conscription to all men aged 18-41 by May 1916, affecting labor availability.
  • Food shortages arose due to conscription of farm workers and submarine warfare.
  • Germany resorted to substitutes like acorns and turnips during food shortages.
  • Rationing measures varied: Britain started rationing sugar and meat in January 1918.
• Impact on Women and Workforce:
  • War created employment opportunities for women in various sectors.
  • Women contributed to farms through the Women's Land Army and worked in munitions factories.
  • Public pressure led to women leaving new jobs for traditional roles after the war.
  • Lloyd George ensured men received higher pay post-war to maintain workforce balance.
• Human Toll and Health Impact:
  • Deaths on the Home Front included 940,000 civilians due to military actions.
  • Malnutrition, disease, and accidents claimed 5.9 million civilian lives.
  • The Spanish flu exacerbated the death toll by claiming an additional 20 million lives.