Imperialism and Free Trade: Rise of Neo-imperialism | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Imperialism

Imperialism is the policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, military force, or other means. 
There are two main types of imperialism:

• Regressive Imperialism: This involves pure conquest, exploitation, extermination, and settlement of desired peoples in conquered territories.
• Progressive Imperialism: This is based on a cosmopolitan view of humanity, promoting the spread of civilization to allegedly backward societies. An example is the British Empire, which claimed to provide advantages to its subjects.

Imperialism was primarily associated with Western political and economic dominance in the 19th and 20th centuries. From a Marxist perspective, it is seen as a natural feature of developed capitalist nations evolving into monopoly capitalism. Imperialism is viewed as the highest stage of capitalism, leading to competition between empires, wars (such as the World Wars), and continued military interventions in colonies to exploit less developed markets.

Both colonization and imperialism are considered early forms of globalization.

Justification of Imperialism

• Imperialism was justified on various grounds, including the belief that it was desirable for the earth to be governed and developed by the races deemed most capable.
• Technological and economic improvements were often introduced in territories subjected to imperialism through the construction of roads, infrastructure, and the introduction of new technologies.
• British imperialism frequently invoked the concept of terra nullius("empty land"), as seen in Australia, where settlers considered the land unused by its sparse Aboriginal inhabitants.

Colonialism

• Colonialism involves the establishment, exploitation, maintenance, acquisition, and expansion of colonies in one territory by a political power from another territory. It creates unequal relationships between the colonial power and the colony, often affecting the indigenous population.
• The European colonial period, spanning from the 16th century to the mid-20th century, saw several European powers (notably Portugal, Spain, Britain, the Netherlands, Russia, and France) establish colonies in Asia, Africa, and the Americas.
• Initially, these countries followed mercantilist policies aimed at strengthening the home economy at the expense of rivals, restricting colonial trade to the mother country. However, by the mid-19th century, the powerful British Empire shifted towards free trade, abandoning mercantilism and trade restrictions.
• Sociocultural Evolution: Colonialism often led to the formation of ethnically hybrid populations due to sociocultural evolution. Culturally and ethnically mixed populations, such as the mestizos of the Americas, emerged, along with racially divided populations in places like French Algeria or Southern Rhodesia.

Colonialism vs. Imperialism

• Colonialism and imperialism are often used interchangeably, but they have distinct meanings.
• Colonialism involves one nation assuming control over another, while imperialism refers to political or economic control, either formally or informally.
• Colonialism can be seen as a practice driven by imperialism, which is the underlying idea.
• Colonialism is about conquering and ruling over other regions, exploiting their resources for the benefit of the conqueror.
• Colonialism involves building and maintaining colonies in one territory by people from another territory, altering the social structure, physical structure, and economics of the region. Over time, the traits of the conqueror are inherited by the conquered.
• Colonialism is exemplified by the settlement of places like India, Australia, North America, Algeria, New Zealand, and Brazil, all controlled by Europeans. In contrast, imperialism refers to foreign governance over a territory without significant settlement, as seen in the scramble for Africa and American domination of Puerto Rico and the Philippines.
• Colonialism is characterized by a significant movement of people to new territories, living as permanent settlers while maintaining allegiance to their mother country. Imperialism, on the other hand, involves exercising power over conquered regions through sovereignty or indirect control.
• Imperialism has a longer history than colonialism. While colonialism dates back to the 15th century, imperialism has its origins in ancient Rome.
• Colonialism began when Europeans started to look beyond their borders, pursuing trade with other nations.
• The term "colony" comes from the Latin word "colonus," meaning farmers, while "imperialism" comes from the Latin word "imperium," meaning to command.
• Imperialism operates from the center as a state policy driven by ideological and financial reasons, whereas colonialism is primarily about settlement or commercial intentions.
• While imperialism includes some form of colonialism, colonialism does not automatically imply imperialism as it lacks a political focus.

Impact of Colonization and Imperialism

Political Impact:

• Imperialism brought political unity to countries like India, which had been fragmented before Western intervention. The British established political cohesion through infrastructure like railways, modern transportation, communication systems, the press, and a uniform administration.
• Western colonialism introduced ideas such as nationalism, democracy, and constitutionalism in Asia and Africa. Imperialist powers attempted to instill these concepts and institutions, inadvertently unleashing liberal forces in these regions.
• Colonial powers implemented efficient administrative systems primarily for their own interests, often neglecting the welfare of the natives. Despite the lack of native representation in civil services and higher positions, the systems exposed colonial subjects to Western administrative practices.

Economic Impact:

• Western imperialism had a mixed economic impact. Positively, it led to industrial development in Asia and Africa as imperialist powers established industries in their colonies for profit, laying the groundwork for industrialization.
• Colonial powers built extensive railway networks and banking systems in the colonies to exploit resources efficiently. They also set up industries to maximize profits, contributing to the industrialization of the colonies.
• Negatively, imperialist powers exploited colonies by importing raw materials at low prices and exporting finished products at high prices. They hindered local industries and trade through restrictive industrial and taxation laws, resulting in wealth drainage, poverty, and backwardness in the colonies.

Social and Cultural Impact:

• Colonial and imperialist rule had significant social and cultural consequences. It adversely affected local religions as Western missionaries encouraged conversions to Christianity by offering material benefits, leading to the growth of Christianity in many Asian and African countries.
• Christian missionaries contributed to social services by establishing hospitals, dispensaries, schools, and colleges, playing a crucial role in enlightening the people of Asia and Africa.
• Colonial and imperialist rule also resulted in racial segregation, with European rulers considering their culture superior to Asian and African cultures. They imposed their culture and maintained a belief in the superiority of the white race over black races, enacting discriminatory laws against local people.
• Imperialist rule contributed to the rise of slavery, with the Portuguese in the 15th century raiding African villages and enslaving people, marking the beginning of a regular market for slaves. The English also engaged in the slave trade, uprooting millions of Africans from their homes and subjecting them to inhumane conditions.
• Imperialist powers undermined moral principles by resorting to immoral practices to maintain control over colonial subjects. The policy of 'divide and rule' exemplified by the British in India ultimately led to the partition of India.
• Colonialism and imperialism caused immense suffering and misery to people, with numerous wars resulting in the loss of millions of lives. These powers faced resistance from local populations and conflicts among themselves, leading to widespread devastation.
• Overall, colonialism and imperialism had profound impacts on colonies in political, economic, and social spheres.

Decline of Old Colonial Movements

• The American Revolution and the collapse of the Spanish Empire in the early 19th century marked the end of the first era of European imperialism.
• Most colonies were incurring losses, leading colonial powers to lose interest in maintaining them.
• Empire building became increasingly viewed as not worth the trouble and expense.
• In the United Kingdom, these revolutions highlighted the deficiencies of mercantilism, which had supported earlier imperial expansion.
• The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 benefited manufacturers by allowing them to trade more freely, leading the UK to adopt the concept of free trade.
• The free trade movement also contributed to reduced interest in colonies.

Rise of New Imperialism (Neo-Imperialism)

• New Imperialism was a period of colonial expansion and accompanying ideologies by European powers, the United States, and Japan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The term "new" distinguishes this period from earlier European colonization from the 15th to early 19th centuries.
• From the 15th century, Europe focused on the non-European world, with Spain, Portugal, Holland, England, and France establishing colonial empires over two centuries. However, in the early 19th century, colonial movements lost vitality as European empires crumbled. Great Britain lost its American colonies in 1783, and Spanish colonies in America revolted.
• The mercantile theory supporting colonies gradually lost appeal due to criticisms by Turgot and Adam Smith, leading to the rise of laissez-faire economic theory. The Free Trade Movement undermined old colonial policy.
• However, in the 1870s and 1880s, there was a retreat from free markets and a return to state intervention in economic affairs, giving rise to New Imperialism. This shift was largely driven by new economic conditions resulting from the Industrial Revolution.
• The Great Powers of Europe, having previously shown apathy towards overseas colonies, suddenly engaged in a frenzy of territorial acquisitions, partitioning almost the entire uncolonized globe within two decades. This period is characterized by an unprecedented pursuit of overseas territorial acquisitions, with countries focusing on expanding their empires through conquest and resource exploitation.

Causes of New Imperialism

• Entry of Germany and Italy and Rising Competition: Between the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, Britain enjoyed the benefits of being the sole modern industrial power. However, after the Franco-Prussian War, British hegemony eroded due to changes in European and world economies and the continental balance of power.
• The establishment of nation-states in Germany and Italy resolved territorial issues that had previously embroiled potential rivals in internal conflicts, benefiting Britain. The period from 1871 to 1914 was marked by intense competition for colonies among European powers, including newly unified nations like Italy and Germany. Particularly, Germany, eager for colonies, sought to establish its status as a world power, driven by both economic and political needs.
• Economic Motives: The growth of European industry, increased production capacity, and surplus capital created a necessity for new markets, sources of raw materials, and areas for capital investment. There was a high demand for natural resources and products not found in Western countries, such as rubber, oil, and tin. Rather than trading for these products, European powers sought direct control over the regions where these resources were located.
• Economic expansion required cheap labor and access to or control of markets for selling or buying products. The competition among nation-states was a significant factor in the growth of new imperialism. The Long Depression of 1873–1896 intensified this competition, pressuring governments to promote home industry and leading to a widespread abandonment of free trade among European powers, particularly in Germany and France.
• Policy of Protectionism: The protectionist creed emphasized national self-sufficiency, which was impossible for industrialized Europe without controlling underdeveloped tropical regions that produced essential raw materials. Thus, the economic policy of protection stimulated imperialism.
• Nationalistic Factors: The spirit of national pride and the desire for prestige strongly motivated colonial expansion. This sentiment was particularly strong in the newly unified states of Italy and Germany. New imperialism followed the national wars that created powerful united Germany and Italy, and which brought Russia close to Constantinople, leaving England fearful and France eclipsed.
• Nationalistic fervor led to a desire to maintain or recover national prestige through overseas expansion. France sought compensation for European losses through overseas gains, while England sought to offset its European isolation by enlarging and glorifying the British Empire. Russia, halted in the Balkans, turned its attention to Asia.
• Germany and Italy, in the wake of their national unification, sought to establish themselves as world powers. The vast colonial empire of Britain set a standard, and the idea that possessing colonies was essential for a great power gained traction. The entry of these two states intensified competition for overseas possessions.
• Military and Strategic Value: As competition among European powers grew, new markets and colonies providing strategic locations such as ports, naval bases, and coaling stations became increasingly important. Colonies also served as outlets for surplus population.
• Social Darwinism and Racism: Social Darwinism, a misapplication of Charles Darwin's theories of natural selection and survival of the fittest, was used to justify European imperialism and colonialism. Social Darwinists argued that the strong should see their wealth and power increase while the weak should see their wealth and power decrease.

Scramble for Africa

The "Scramble for Africa" refers to the period of intense invasion, occupation, colonization, and annexation of African territories by European powers during the era of New Imperialism, from the 1880s until the onset of World War I. In 1870, only 10 percent of Africa was under European control, but by 1914, this figure had risen to 90 percent, with only Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and Liberia remaining independent.

Before the Scramble for Africa - Europeans in Africa up to the 1880s:

• The Portuguese were the first post-Middle Ages Europeans to establish settlements, trade posts, permanent fortifications, and ports along the African coast during the Age of Discovery in the 15th century.
• For about two centuries, there was little interest in and knowledge of Africa's interior, leading to its characterization as the "Black/Dark Continent."
• Despite being geographically close to Europe, Africa remained one of the least known parts of the world until the mid-19th century. While its northern shores were known to Europe from ancient times, the vast interior remained largely unexplored.
• Some European nations had a few coastal stations in the east and west, but these were seen as "dots of civilization upon the borders of undeveloped barbarism."
• The limited European knowledge and interest in Africa were largely due to physical factors. The inhospitable coasts, difficult rivers, and the challenges posed by deserts, swamps, and dense forests hindered exploration and trade.
• Trade with Africa was not very profitable, as the inhabitants were considered backward with simple needs. The existing European settlements along the coast were sufficient for the limited trade that existed.
• European exploration of Africa's interior began earnestly in the late 18th century. By 1835, much of northwestern Africa was mapped.
• Famous explorers like David Livingstone and H. M. Stanley mapped large areas of Southern and Central Africa in the mid-19th century.
• By the late 19th century, European explorers had charted the Nile, Niger, Congo, and Zambezi Rivers, recognizing Africa's vast resources.
• As late as the 1870s, European powers controlled only 10 percent of Africa, primarily along the coast and near major rivers.
• During the first half of the 19th century, significant European settlements included the French Empire in Algeria, Portuguese territories in Angola and Mozambique, the British Cape Colony in the south, and Boer settlements to the north.

What Caused the Scramble to Happen?

• Africa and Global Markets: Sub-Saharan Africa, largely untouched by informal imperialism, attracted Europe’s ruling elites for economic reasons. Africa offered an open market for countries like Britain, Germany, and France, helping them achieve a trade surplus during a time of shrinking continental markets.
• Capitalism: The end of European slave trading created a need for legitimate commerce between Europe and Africa. Explorers identified vast reserves of raw materials, leading to the establishment of trade routes and markets for European manufactured goods. Britain, as the world’s first post-industrial nation, sought investments in developing African markets. The southern and eastern coasts of Africa were also desired for strategic stopover ports on the route to Asia.
• End of the Slave Trade: The abolition of the slave trade by Britain in 1807 increased interest in Africa. Despite some success in halting the trade along the coasts, inland slaving continued. Explorers like Livingstone reported on slaving activities, prompting calls for more action against the trade.
• Exploration: The 19th century saw a surge in scientific explorations revealing Africa's resources. The African Association, established in 1788, sparked interest in exploring Africa. British explorers like David Livingstone and Henry Stanley played crucial roles in mapping the continent and highlighting its commercial potential.
• Steam Engines and Iron Hulled Boats: The introduction of steam engines and iron-hulled boats revolutionized transportation in Africa. These innovations allowed for exploration and access to the interior, facilitating trade and colonization.
• Medical Advances: Advancements in medicine, particularly the extraction of quinine to combat malaria, made it possible for Europeans to survive in Africa, despite ongoing challenges like yellow fever.
• Politics and Strategic Rivalries: The unification of Germany and Italy left little room for expansion in Europe, prompting these nations to seek colonies in Africa. Rivalries between powers like Britain, France, and Germany fueled colonization efforts. Britain sought control over Egypt and the Suez Canal, while Germany aimed to secure strategic territories in Africa.
• Military Innovation: Innovations in weaponry, such as the introduction of breach-loading rifles and percussion caps, gave Europeans a significant military advantage over Africans. The restriction of modern weaponry sales to Africa helped maintain European military superiority.
• Colonial Exhibitions: Colonial exhibitions popularized the idea of colonial empires in Europe. Public displays of indigenous peoples and animals from newly conquered territories fostered interest in colonization.
• Colonial Lobby, Propaganda, and Jingoism: Colonial lobbies emerged to legitimize the Scramble for Africa. Political leaders who initially opposed colonization, like Gladstone in Britain and Clemenceau in France, eventually supported imperialistic endeavors due to social tensions and nationalistic pressures. The exploration of Africa was followed by a rapid partition among European powers, largely achieved without war through diplomatic means. The entry of Italy and Germany into the colonial race intensified competition among established powers, leading to the swift partition of Africa.

The Course of Partition

Colonization of the Congo:

Activity of Belgium in the Congo Basin:

• The Belgian occupation of the Congo valley played a significant role in the scramble for Africa.
• David Livingstone's explorations, continued by Henry Morton Stanley, sparked interest in the region. Initially, Stanley's ambitious colonization plans struggled to gain support due to the challenges involved, except from King Leopold II of Belgium.
• From 1869 to 1874, Stanley was covertly sent by Leopold II to the Congo, where he negotiated treaties with various African chiefs along the Congo River. By 1882, Stanley had secured enough territory to establish the Congo Free State.
• Leopold II personally owned the Congo Free State from 1885, using it as a source of ivory and rubber.
• In 1876, Leopold II convened an international conference in Brussels to discuss the opening of Africa's interior to trade and industry. This led to the formation of the "International Association for the Exploration and Civilisation of Central Africa," with Leopold as its president.
• While Stanley was exploring the Congo for Leopold II, the French-Italian explorer Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza claimed parts of the western Congo basin for France, founding Brazzaville in 1881.
• Portugal, claiming the area based on old treaties with the native Kongo Empire, signed a treaty with Britain in 1884 to limit the Congo Society's access to the Atlantic.
• By 1890, the Congo Free State had strengthened its control over territories between Leopoldville (now Kinshasa) and Stanleyville (now Kisangani), aiming to expand southward.
• Simultaneously, Cecil Rhodes and the British South Africa Company were expanding north from the Limpopo River into Mashonaland.
• Katanga, ruled by the powerful Yeke Kingdom of Msiri, became a focal point of contention. Msiri was a significant trader in copper, ivory, and slaves, with rumors of gold attracting European interest.
• The competition for Katanga exemplified the period's scramble. Both Rhodes and Leopold sent expeditions to claim the territory.
• After Msiri was killed, his head was displayed as a warning to the local populace.
• Katanga, covering half a million square kilometers, came under Leopold's control, expanding his African realm to about 75 times the size of Belgium.
• The Congo Free State imposed a regime of terror, including mass killings and forced labor. This led to Belgium annexing the territory from Leopold in 1908, transforming it into the Belgian Congo due to pressure from the Congo Reform Association.
• Leopold II's brutal rule in the Congo Free State, now the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), was marked by high mortality rates from diseases like sleeping sickness and smallpox. Similar situations occurred in neighboring French Congo.
• Resource extraction was primarily managed by concession companies, whose harsh methods and the spread of disease caused significant population losses.
• The French government, under de Brazza, investigated alleged abuses in its colony in 1905. However, de Brazza's critical report was not acted upon or made public due to his death on the return journey.
• The Berlin Conference (1884-85) established the Congo Free State and set the framework for African territorial division, often referred to as the Berlin West Africa Conference.

Berlin Conference (1884-85):

• The Central Association evolved into a predominantly Belgian organization, working under Stanley's direction to establish a neutral state in the Congo basin under the Belgian King's protection.
• This led to conflicts with France and Portugal, who had competing claims based on prior discoveries.
• To resolve these disputes, an international conference was convened in Berlin in 1884 by Otto von Bismarck.
• Proposed by Portugal to assert its claim over the Congo estuary, the conference aimed to address the rivalries and suspicions among European powers regarding colonial expansion in Africa.
• The conference rejected Portugal's claims to the Congo River estuary, facilitating the establishment of the independent Congo Free State.
• It recognized the Congo Free State under Leopold's personal sovereignty but mandated that trade and shipping within it be open to all nations, with free navigation on the Niger and Congo rivers.
• Despite these stipulations, the new state effectively became a Belgian territory.
• The conference presented a humanitarian facade by condemning the slave trade and expressing concerns for missionary activities, leading Joseph Conrad to satirically refer to it as the "International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs" in his novella "Heart of Darkness."
• It also outlined rules for acquiring African territory, requiring powers to notify others of annexations and to occupy territories effectively (Principle of Effective Occupation).
• However, these rules were often disregarded, and conflicts among competitors were narrowly avoided.
• The conference ensured that the partition of Africa occurred without war among European nations.

Congo Free State to Belgian Colony:

• Belgium, a small European nation, expanded its empire to nearly ten times its size, acquiring the prime "rubber country" in the Congo region.
• Under Belgian rule, the Congo Free State exemplified the harshest aspects of European imperialism, with the civilizing mission devolving into brutal exploitation.
• The imposition of a heavy rubber tribute on the natives, with penalties including mutilation for non-payment, shocked even imperialistic Europe with reports of extreme cruelty.
• Intense criticism both domestically and internationally forced Leopold to transfer his personal estate to the Belgian government in 1908 for generous compensation.
• The Congo Free State transitioned from an international state to Leopold's personal property and then to a Belgian colony, subject to the Belgian Parliament.

Scramble for Africa:

• Leopold II of Belgium's successful empire-building in the Congo valley sparked the ambition of other European states, leading to a frenzied rush for territory across Africa.
• France initiated the scramble by seizing Tunis in 1881, followed by Britain's occupation of Egypt the next year.
• Italy, resentful of France's acquisition of Tunis, secured a foothold on the western Red Sea shores, which later became the colony of Eritrea.
• Germany, a newcomer to colonialism, established herself in South-West Africa, while Portugal began to expand her ancient possessions in both the east and west.
• Before the Berlin Conference convened, the scramble for Africa was already underway.
• After 1884, European powers intensified their exploration and annexation activities.
• France expanded her dominion from Algeria in the north to the Guinea Coast in the west, aiming for a vast empire extending across the Sahara.
• In response to the rapid shrinkage of African territory, Great Britain sought to secure her own areas, pushing north from the Cape Colony into Rhodesia and aiming for a continuous empire from the Cape to Cairo.
• Germany also aimed to carve out significant portions of Africa, engaging in both eastern and western territories.
• This scramble sometimes resulted in frictions and diplomatic complications, but the powers resolved their differences through treaties that delineated their claims and spheres of influence.
• By 1914, nearly the entire African continent was divided among European powers, with the exceptions of Abyssinia and Liberia, the latter being a colony managed by ex-African American slaves.

Brief Summary of European Possessions in Africa

France:

• France, already in control of Algeria, added Tunisia in 1882, which became a French protectorate.
• France occupied Guinea, and in 1895 founded French West Africa (AOF), followed by French Equatorial Africa in 1910.
• France also occupied Morocco by 1912.
• From her possessions on the north coast, France expanded over the Sahara and from Senegal eastwards towards the upper Niger river.
• In 1884, France seized territory along the Congo, skirting the right bank, and pushed north to Lake Chad, opening a route to the Mediterranean.
• France thus built a vast empire on the northwest of Africa, becoming the greatest African power by mileage.
• She also acquired Madagascar in 1896, annoying Britain.

Portugal:

• Portugal expanded her coastal stations south of the Belgian Congo, developing into the province of Angola.
• She also founded the colony of Mozambique or Portuguese East Africa.
• Portugal aimed to connect her eastern and western possessions but was forced to halt due to British rivalry.

Italy:

• Italian imperialism began in 1883 with the seizure of Eritrea on the Red Sea.
• Italy acquired Italian Somaliland on the east coast and attempted to link these possessions by conquering Abyssinia (Ethiopia) but faced a heavy defeat at Adowa in 1896.
• After the first Italo-Ethiopian War from 1895 to 1896, Italy acquired Italian Somaliland and Eritrea, and later Tripoli and Cyrenacia (modern Libya) from Turkey in 1912.
• Italian imperialism was justified by Enrico Corradini as Proletarian Nationalism, merging socialism with nationalism.

Germany:

• Germany, the last European power to enter colonialism, had little presence before the New Imperialism period.
• After unification under Prussia, Germany began world expansion in the 1880s, driven by industrial growth and the need for colonies.
• German colonies included German South-West Africa (1884), Togoland and Cameroons (1884), and German East Africa.
• Bismarck, initially opposed to colonialism, was influenced by imperialists and organized the 1884-85 Berlin Conference.
• Under Kaiser Wilhelm II, Germany adopted a more aggressive colonial policy, leading to significant naval expansion and becoming the third largest colonial power by 1914.
• Germany’s colonies included Southwest Africa, Togoland, the Cameroons, and Tanganyika.
• Post World War I, Germany's colonies were partitioned among Britain, France, and Belgium.

Herero Wars and Maji-Maji Rebellion:

• Between 1904 and 1908, German colonies in German South-West Africa and German East Africa experienced revolts against German rule.
• In both territories, the threat to German authority was swiftly quelled once substantial reinforcements from Germany arrived.
• The Herero rebels in German South-West Africa were defeated, and the Maji-Maji rebels in German East Africa were gradually crushed by German forces advancing through the countryside, with natives resorting to guerrilla warfare.
• German efforts to clear the bush of civilians in German South-West Africa resulted in a genocide of the population.
• Characteristic of this genocide was death by starvation and the poisoning of the population’s wells while they were trapped in the Namib Desert.

Great Britain:

• In the partition of Africa, Britain secured the largest share, including the best regions of the continent.
• In the north, Britain controlled Egypt and extended her sway over Sudan.
• She acquired British East Africa and established a protectorate over Uganda, creating a continuous stretch of territory from the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean.
• At the southern end of the continent, Britain controlled four colonies: Cape of Good Hope, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange River Colony, which were united in 1910 as the "Union of South Africa."
• North of this union was the Protectorate of Bechuanaland, and further north was Rhodesia, reaching the southern border of German East Africa.
• Britain pushed northwards from the Cape Colony, controlling an unbroken stretch of territory up to Lake Tanganyika, except for German East Africa.
• Britain's holdings in other parts of Africa included Gambia, Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, Nigeria on the west, and part of Somaliland on the east coast.

Growth of British Influence in Egypt:

• France had long considered Egypt a prize, maintaining influence through Mehemet Ali and securing political influence and control over the Suez Canal.
• Britain, recognizing Egypt's strategic importance due to the Suez Canal, gained control over the canal when Khedive Isma’il Pasha sold his shares to British investors.
• Following Ismail's bankruptcy, France and Britain shared control over Egypt's finances.
• When Ismail was deposed, his son Tewfik Pasha became Khedive, but anti-foreign sentiment grew due to foreign intervention.
• In 1882, this anti-foreign feeling culminated in a nationalist uprising led by Arabi Pasha, prompting British intervention.
• Initially intending to restore order and evacuate, Britain remained in Egypt due to the need to stabilize the country and handle issues in Sudan.
• Britain formalized her control over Egypt by establishing a protectorate during World War I when Turkey, Egypt's nominal suzerain, sided with the Central Powers.

British and French Dreams in Africa

• The French expansion into the African interior primarily originated from the coasts of West Africa, particularly present-day Senegal. They advanced eastward through the Sahel region, which lies along the southern edge of the Sahara Desert. This desert spans much of modern-day Senegal, Mali, Niger, and Chad.
• The French aimed to establish a continuous colonial empire stretching from the Niger River to the Nile. By controlling the caravan routes through the Sahara, they sought to dominate all trade to and from the Sahel region.
• British Ambitions The British, in contrast, aimed to connect their territories in Southern Africa with those in East Africa, specifically present-day Kenya, and link these regions to the Nile basin. The Sudan, which then included most of present-day Uganda, was crucial for achieving these goals, especially since Egypt was already under British control.
• Cape to Cairo Railway The idea of a “Cape to Cairo” empire, which sought to link the mineral-rich southern part of Africa with the Suez Canal by rail, was famously championed by Cecil Rhodes. Despite challenges such as German occupation of Tanganyika until after World War I, Rhodes effectively advocated for this vision.
• Strategic Intersection at Fashoda If one were to draw a line from Cape Town to Cairo, representing Rhodes's dream, and another from Dakar to the Horn of Africa (comprising modern-day Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Somalia), reflecting the French ambition, these two lines would intersect in eastern Sudan, near Fashoda. This intersection underscores the strategic importance of the region.
• British and French Aspirations In summary, Britain aimed to extend its East African empire from Cairo to the Cape of Good Hope, while France sought to expand its territories from Dakar to the Sudan. This would allow France to span the continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea.

Britain's Administration of Egypt and South Africa

• The British were mainly focused on ensuring secure communication lines to India, which sparked their initial interest in Egypt and South Africa. Once these regions were secured, British colonial figures like Cecil Rhodes aimed to establish a Cape-Cairo railway and exploit the mineral and agricultural resources available.
• Control of the Nile River Britain's administration of Egypt and the Cape Colony was driven by a preoccupation with securing the source of the Nile River. Controlling the Nile was seen as a significant strategic and commercial advantage.
• In 1882, British forces invaded Egypt, although Egypt was not officially declared a protectorate until 1914, and it was never truly a colony. The British subjugated Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, and Uganda during the 1890s and early 20th century. The Cape Colony, first acquired in 1795, served as a base for the subjugation of neighboring African states and the Dutch Afrikaner settlers who had left the Cape to escape British rule, establishing their own republics.
• Annexation and Wars In 1877, Shepstone annexed the South African Republic (or Transvaal, which had been independent from 1857 to 1877) for the British Empire. After the Anglo-Zulu War in 1879, Britain consolidated its control over most of South Africa.
• The Boers protested this control, leading to the First Boer War (1880–81). British Prime Minister Gladstone signed a peace treaty on March 23, 1881, granting the Boers self-government in the Transvaal.
• The Second Boer War, fought between 1899 and 1902, was primarily about control over the gold and diamond industries. The independent Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (Transvaal) were defeated and absorbed into the British Empire.

First Moroccan Crisis (1905-1906): Background and Causes

• The 1884–85 Berlin Conference had set the ground rules for the scramble for Africa but did not diminish the rivalries among European powers.
• The 1898 Fashoda Incident brought France and Britain close to war, but they eventually resolved their differences, leading to the Entente Cordiale of 1904. This agreement aimed to counter the influence of the Triple Alliance powers.
• In this context, the German Empire sought to challenge the Entente's strength by focusing on Morocco, a region of contested interests.
• In 1904, France had secretly agreed with Spain to divide Morocco and had also promised not to interfere with British interests in Egypt. This arrangement solidified France's influence in Morocco with the backing of Britain and Spain.
• Germany, however, pushed for an open-door policy in Morocco. In a bold move, Kaiser Wilhelm II visited Tangier in March 1905, declaring Morocco's independence and challenging French dominance.

Escalation of the Crisis:

• The Kaiser’s declaration fueled French nationalism. French Foreign Minister Théophile Delcassé, supported by Britain, took a firm stance against German claims.
• The crisis peaked in June 1905 when Delcassé was ousted by the more conciliatory Premier Maurice Rouvier.
• By July 1905, Germany found itself increasingly isolated, leading to a French proposal for a conference to resolve the dispute.
• U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, urged by the German Emperor, facilitated the 1906 Algeciras Conference to address the crisis.

Algeciras Conference (1906):

• Called to resolve the First Moroccan Crisis, the Algeciras Conference saw thirteen nations in attendance.
• Germany found support only from Austria-Hungary, while France was backed by Britain, Russia, Italy, Spain, and the United States.
• Ultimately, Germany accepted a compromise on May 31, 1906. France retained effective control over Moroccan political and financial affairs but agreed to yield control of the Moroccan police.
• While the conference temporarily resolved the crisis, it heightened tensions between the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente, setting the stage for World War I.
• The First Moroccan Crisis demonstrated the strength of the Entente Cordiale, with Britain supporting France during the conflict.

Significance of the Algeciras Conference:

• The conference highlighted the diplomatic support France received from Britain and the United States, foreshadowing their roles in World War I.
• The Moroccan Crisis acted as a precursor to the larger conflict, illustrating the growing divisions in Europe.

Second Moroccan Crisis (1911)

• The Second Moroccan Crisis, also known as the Agadir Crisis, erupted when Germany deployed the gunboat Panther to the port of Agadir on July 1, 1911.
• This move was part of Germany's efforts to challenge British naval supremacy, which aimed to keep the British navy larger than the next two combined.
• Upon learning of the Panther's arrival, the British mistakenly believed Germany intended to establish a naval base in Agadir.
• Germany's actions were actually aimed at reinforcing its claims for compensation related to French control over Morocco, established at the 1906 Algeciras Conference.
• The Agadir Incident sparked intense war rhetoric during the summer and fall of 1911, with Britain even preparing for potential conflict, although international negotiations continued.
• Amid this crisis, Germany faced financial difficulties, including a stock market crash, compelling Kaiser Wilhelm II to back down.
• In November 1911, an agreement was reached where Germany acknowledged France's position in Morocco in exchange for territory in the French Equatorial African colony of Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo).
• Subsequently, France and Spain established a full protectorate over Morocco on March 30, 1912, effectively ending the country's formal independence.

Impact on Anglo-German Relations and the Path to World War I:

• British support for France during both Moroccan crises strengthened the Entente between the two nations.
• This support contributed to the growing estrangement between Britain and Germany, deepening the divisions that would ultimately lead to World War I.

Dervish Resistance (1900-1920):

• Following the Berlin Conference at the end of the 19th century, the British, Italians, and Ethiopians sought to claim lands owned by the Somalis.
• The Dervish State was established by Abdullah Hassan, a Somali religious leader who unified Muslim soldiers into a loyal army known as the Dervishes.
• This Dervish army enabled Hassan to carve out a powerful state through conquest of lands sought after by the Ethiopians and European powers.
• The Dervish State successfully repulsed the British Empire four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region.
• Due to these successful expeditions, the Dervish State was recognized as an ally by the Ottoman and German empires.
• After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain’s use of aircraft.

Independent States in Africa:

• Liberia: Founded by the American Colonization Society in 1821, Liberia declared its independence in 1847.
• Ethiopian Empire (Abyssinia): The borders of Ethiopia were re-drawn with the establishment of Italian Eritrea. Ethiopia was occupied by Italy in 1936 during the Abyssinia Crisis.

Colonialism Leading to World War I

• During the period of New Imperialism, by the end of the 19th century, Europe expanded its overseas colonial possessions by nearly one-fifth of the globe’s land area.
• Between 1885 and 1914, various European powers controlled significant portions of Africa:
• Britain took control of nearly 30% of Africa’s population;
• France 15%;
• Portugal 11%;
• Germany 9%;
• Belgium 7%;
• Italy 1%.
• In terms of surface area occupied, the French were marginal victors, but much of their territory consisted of the sparsely populated Sahara.
• Political imperialism followed economic expansion, with “colonial lobbies” bolstering chauvinism and jingoism at each crisis to legitimize the colonial enterprise.
• Tensions between imperial powers led to a series of crises, culminating in August 1914 when rivalries and alliances triggered the outbreak of the First World War.