Important Terminologies: H - K | Anthropology Optional for UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


H
H or Hu. In relationship terminology, the abbreviation for “husband.”
Habermas, Jürgen (1929–). German philosopher, born Düsseldorf and 
 principally associated with the Frankfurt School (see critical anthropol-
ogy), whose work he continued (he was Adorno’s assistant for a time). 
A critic of rationalism and positivism, he has produced a number of 
works on sociology and social communication, including Theorie und 
Praxis (1962; Theory and practice, 1974) and Theorie des kommunikativen 
Handelns (1981; The theory of communicative action, 1984).
habitus. A set of received beliefs enabling structured social improvisation. 
The habitus allows people to create ways of achieving their aims within 
an existing context. The term was adapted from Latin by bourdieu. See 
disposition, practice theory, taste.
Further reading: Jenkins (2002).
Haddon, A. C. (1855–1940). British zoologist and anthropologist, leader of 
the torres straits expedition, which was seminal to the development of 
anthropology in Britain. Haddon was professor of zoology at Dublin from 
1880 and visited the Torres Strait to study coral; becoming interested in the 
people he encountered, he returned with a group of other scientists to study 
them. Following this famous expedition of 1898, Haddon became reader in 
ethnology at Cambridge (1909–26) and wrote a number of monographs, 
including Evolution in art: as illustrated by the life-histories of designs 
(1895), The races of man and their distribution (1909; new ed. 1924), and 
History of anthropology (1910; 2nd ed. 1934).
Morris_c08.indd 114 Morris_c08.indd   114 12/1/2011 4:21:19 PM 12/1/2011   4:21:19 PM
Page 2


H
H or Hu. In relationship terminology, the abbreviation for “husband.”
Habermas, Jürgen (1929–). German philosopher, born Düsseldorf and 
 principally associated with the Frankfurt School (see critical anthropol-
ogy), whose work he continued (he was Adorno’s assistant for a time). 
A critic of rationalism and positivism, he has produced a number of 
works on sociology and social communication, including Theorie und 
Praxis (1962; Theory and practice, 1974) and Theorie des kommunikativen 
Handelns (1981; The theory of communicative action, 1984).
habitus. A set of received beliefs enabling structured social improvisation. 
The habitus allows people to create ways of achieving their aims within 
an existing context. The term was adapted from Latin by bourdieu. See 
disposition, practice theory, taste.
Further reading: Jenkins (2002).
Haddon, A. C. (1855–1940). British zoologist and anthropologist, leader of 
the torres straits expedition, which was seminal to the development of 
anthropology in Britain. Haddon was professor of zoology at Dublin from 
1880 and visited the Torres Strait to study coral; becoming interested in the 
people he encountered, he returned with a group of other scientists to study 
them. Following this famous expedition of 1898, Haddon became reader in 
ethnology at Cambridge (1909–26) and wrote a number of monographs, 
including Evolution in art: as illustrated by the life-histories of designs 
(1895), The races of man and their distribution (1909; new ed. 1924), and 
History of anthropology (1910; 2nd ed. 1934).
Morris_c08.indd 114 Morris_c08.indd   114 12/1/2011 4:21:19 PM 12/1/2011   4:21:19 PM
Haeckel, Ernst (1834–1919). See ecology, ontogenesis, phylogenesis, 
phylum.
Haiti. See voodoo.
Hall, Edward T. (1914–2009). See proxemics.
hallucinogen. A substance that, when ingested, acts on the central nervous 
system to alter perceptions or thoughts, for instance by causing hallucina-
tions. Hallucinogens, though often illegal in western societies, may be used 
to accompany ritual in some cultures. The best-known hallucinogens 
include plants such as peyote and synthetic substances such as LSD. See 
also drugs, shaman.
Hamilton, W. D. (1936–2000). See inclusive fitness, kin selection 
altruism.
Hannerz, Ulf (1942–). Swedish social anthropologist, long associated with 
Stockholm University, where he is professor emeritus. He has done fieldwork 
in the US, West Africa, and the Caribbean and engaged in urban anthro-
pology and studies of the media and globalization. His books include 
Soulside: inquiries into ghetto culture and community (1969; reprint with 
new afterword, 2004), Exploring the city: inquiries toward an urban anthro-
pology (1980), Transnational connections: culture, people, places (1996), 
and Foreign news: exploring the world of foreign correspondents (2004).
hapax or hapax legomenon. In linguistics, a word or form that occurs 
only once in a body of writing or work of an author. From Greek, “thing 
said once.”
happiness. See well-being.
haptics. The study of touch and the sensations derived from it. A haptic 
person or creature is more oriented toward touch than the other senses.
harijan. A synonym for dalit.
harmonic. According to lévi-strauss, a kinship system in which descent 
recognition accords with residence rules (so that, for example, those who 
hold recognized rights from a relationship with the father’s side of a family 
live with the husband’s relatives) is a harmonic regime. It is linked with 
generalized exchange.
A disharmonic regime entails oppositions: patrilineal descent/uxorilocal 
residence (i.e. rights via father/living with wife’s relatives), or matrilineal 
descent/virilocal residence (rights via mother/living with husband’s relatives). 
It also involves exogamy. See ma trilineality, pa trilineality, uxoriloca-
lity, virilocality.
Further reading: Lévi-Strauss (1969[b]).
Morris_c08.indd 115 Morris_c08.indd   115 12/1/2011 4:21:19 PM 12/1/2011   4:21:19 PM
Page 3


H
H or Hu. In relationship terminology, the abbreviation for “husband.”
Habermas, Jürgen (1929–). German philosopher, born Düsseldorf and 
 principally associated with the Frankfurt School (see critical anthropol-
ogy), whose work he continued (he was Adorno’s assistant for a time). 
A critic of rationalism and positivism, he has produced a number of 
works on sociology and social communication, including Theorie und 
Praxis (1962; Theory and practice, 1974) and Theorie des kommunikativen 
Handelns (1981; The theory of communicative action, 1984).
habitus. A set of received beliefs enabling structured social improvisation. 
The habitus allows people to create ways of achieving their aims within 
an existing context. The term was adapted from Latin by bourdieu. See 
disposition, practice theory, taste.
Further reading: Jenkins (2002).
Haddon, A. C. (1855–1940). British zoologist and anthropologist, leader of 
the torres straits expedition, which was seminal to the development of 
anthropology in Britain. Haddon was professor of zoology at Dublin from 
1880 and visited the Torres Strait to study coral; becoming interested in the 
people he encountered, he returned with a group of other scientists to study 
them. Following this famous expedition of 1898, Haddon became reader in 
ethnology at Cambridge (1909–26) and wrote a number of monographs, 
including Evolution in art: as illustrated by the life-histories of designs 
(1895), The races of man and their distribution (1909; new ed. 1924), and 
History of anthropology (1910; 2nd ed. 1934).
Morris_c08.indd 114 Morris_c08.indd   114 12/1/2011 4:21:19 PM 12/1/2011   4:21:19 PM
Haeckel, Ernst (1834–1919). See ecology, ontogenesis, phylogenesis, 
phylum.
Haiti. See voodoo.
Hall, Edward T. (1914–2009). See proxemics.
hallucinogen. A substance that, when ingested, acts on the central nervous 
system to alter perceptions or thoughts, for instance by causing hallucina-
tions. Hallucinogens, though often illegal in western societies, may be used 
to accompany ritual in some cultures. The best-known hallucinogens 
include plants such as peyote and synthetic substances such as LSD. See 
also drugs, shaman.
Hamilton, W. D. (1936–2000). See inclusive fitness, kin selection 
altruism.
Hannerz, Ulf (1942–). Swedish social anthropologist, long associated with 
Stockholm University, where he is professor emeritus. He has done fieldwork 
in the US, West Africa, and the Caribbean and engaged in urban anthro-
pology and studies of the media and globalization. His books include 
Soulside: inquiries into ghetto culture and community (1969; reprint with 
new afterword, 2004), Exploring the city: inquiries toward an urban anthro-
pology (1980), Transnational connections: culture, people, places (1996), 
and Foreign news: exploring the world of foreign correspondents (2004).
hapax or hapax legomenon. In linguistics, a word or form that occurs 
only once in a body of writing or work of an author. From Greek, “thing 
said once.”
happiness. See well-being.
haptics. The study of touch and the sensations derived from it. A haptic 
person or creature is more oriented toward touch than the other senses.
harijan. A synonym for dalit.
harmonic. According to lévi-strauss, a kinship system in which descent 
recognition accords with residence rules (so that, for example, those who 
hold recognized rights from a relationship with the father’s side of a family 
live with the husband’s relatives) is a harmonic regime. It is linked with 
generalized exchange.
A disharmonic regime entails oppositions: patrilineal descent/uxorilocal 
residence (i.e. rights via father/living with wife’s relatives), or matrilineal 
descent/virilocal residence (rights via mother/living with husband’s relatives). 
It also involves exogamy. See ma trilineality, pa trilineality, uxoriloca-
lity, virilocality.
Further reading: Lévi-Strauss (1969[b]).
Morris_c08.indd 115 Morris_c08.indd   115 12/1/2011 4:21:19 PM 12/1/2011   4:21:19 PM
Harris, Marvin (1927–2001). American anthropologist, born Brooklyn, 
New York. He obtained his doctorate from Columbia (1953), where he 
taught before becoming a professor at the University of Florida (1981–2000). 
He did fieldwork in Brazil. Best known as the prime mover of cultural 
materialism. His many works include The rise of anthropological theory 
(1968, updated 2001), Cultural materialism (1979, updated 2001), and 
Good to eat (1985).
Hart, Keith (1943–). See informal economy.
Hawaiian terminology. A relationship terminology in which ego’s 
relatives are called by the same term if they are of the same generation and 
sex: so, male cousins are equivalent to brothers, female cousins to sisters; 
mother and mother’s sister (m and MZ) are equivalent, as are father and 
father’s brother (f = FB); and (for example) father’s sister and Ego’s mother 
(FZ = M).
One of several systems identified by G. P. murdock (see eskimo 
terminology and Murdock reference there), common in polynesia.
headman. A locally recognized leader in various cultures; the headman may 
have sole charge of a small group such as a band, or be subordinate in his 
turn within a larger group, to a chief.
headhunter. A member of a people who collect the severed heads of enemies; 
there are a number of explanations for the practice, some disputed.
healing. See disease, medical anthropology, shaman.
Hegel, G. W. F. (1770–1831). See cultural materialism, dialectical 
materialism, volksgeist.
hegemony. In general use, a term for leadership or dominance, especially by 
one corporate entity over another (from Greek, “leader”). In the thought of 
gramsci, the process by which the dominant class or elite retains its 
A
CD D C etc. C
A A B B
D
B
Ego
=
Figure 12 Hawaiian terminology.
Morris_c08.indd   116 Morris_c08.indd   116 12/1/2011   4:21:19 PM 12/1/2011   4:21:19 PM
Page 4


H
H or Hu. In relationship terminology, the abbreviation for “husband.”
Habermas, Jürgen (1929–). German philosopher, born Düsseldorf and 
 principally associated with the Frankfurt School (see critical anthropol-
ogy), whose work he continued (he was Adorno’s assistant for a time). 
A critic of rationalism and positivism, he has produced a number of 
works on sociology and social communication, including Theorie und 
Praxis (1962; Theory and practice, 1974) and Theorie des kommunikativen 
Handelns (1981; The theory of communicative action, 1984).
habitus. A set of received beliefs enabling structured social improvisation. 
The habitus allows people to create ways of achieving their aims within 
an existing context. The term was adapted from Latin by bourdieu. See 
disposition, practice theory, taste.
Further reading: Jenkins (2002).
Haddon, A. C. (1855–1940). British zoologist and anthropologist, leader of 
the torres straits expedition, which was seminal to the development of 
anthropology in Britain. Haddon was professor of zoology at Dublin from 
1880 and visited the Torres Strait to study coral; becoming interested in the 
people he encountered, he returned with a group of other scientists to study 
them. Following this famous expedition of 1898, Haddon became reader in 
ethnology at Cambridge (1909–26) and wrote a number of monographs, 
including Evolution in art: as illustrated by the life-histories of designs 
(1895), The races of man and their distribution (1909; new ed. 1924), and 
History of anthropology (1910; 2nd ed. 1934).
Morris_c08.indd 114 Morris_c08.indd   114 12/1/2011 4:21:19 PM 12/1/2011   4:21:19 PM
Haeckel, Ernst (1834–1919). See ecology, ontogenesis, phylogenesis, 
phylum.
Haiti. See voodoo.
Hall, Edward T. (1914–2009). See proxemics.
hallucinogen. A substance that, when ingested, acts on the central nervous 
system to alter perceptions or thoughts, for instance by causing hallucina-
tions. Hallucinogens, though often illegal in western societies, may be used 
to accompany ritual in some cultures. The best-known hallucinogens 
include plants such as peyote and synthetic substances such as LSD. See 
also drugs, shaman.
Hamilton, W. D. (1936–2000). See inclusive fitness, kin selection 
altruism.
Hannerz, Ulf (1942–). Swedish social anthropologist, long associated with 
Stockholm University, where he is professor emeritus. He has done fieldwork 
in the US, West Africa, and the Caribbean and engaged in urban anthro-
pology and studies of the media and globalization. His books include 
Soulside: inquiries into ghetto culture and community (1969; reprint with 
new afterword, 2004), Exploring the city: inquiries toward an urban anthro-
pology (1980), Transnational connections: culture, people, places (1996), 
and Foreign news: exploring the world of foreign correspondents (2004).
hapax or hapax legomenon. In linguistics, a word or form that occurs 
only once in a body of writing or work of an author. From Greek, “thing 
said once.”
happiness. See well-being.
haptics. The study of touch and the sensations derived from it. A haptic 
person or creature is more oriented toward touch than the other senses.
harijan. A synonym for dalit.
harmonic. According to lévi-strauss, a kinship system in which descent 
recognition accords with residence rules (so that, for example, those who 
hold recognized rights from a relationship with the father’s side of a family 
live with the husband’s relatives) is a harmonic regime. It is linked with 
generalized exchange.
A disharmonic regime entails oppositions: patrilineal descent/uxorilocal 
residence (i.e. rights via father/living with wife’s relatives), or matrilineal 
descent/virilocal residence (rights via mother/living with husband’s relatives). 
It also involves exogamy. See ma trilineality, pa trilineality, uxoriloca-
lity, virilocality.
Further reading: Lévi-Strauss (1969[b]).
Morris_c08.indd 115 Morris_c08.indd   115 12/1/2011 4:21:19 PM 12/1/2011   4:21:19 PM
Harris, Marvin (1927–2001). American anthropologist, born Brooklyn, 
New York. He obtained his doctorate from Columbia (1953), where he 
taught before becoming a professor at the University of Florida (1981–2000). 
He did fieldwork in Brazil. Best known as the prime mover of cultural 
materialism. His many works include The rise of anthropological theory 
(1968, updated 2001), Cultural materialism (1979, updated 2001), and 
Good to eat (1985).
Hart, Keith (1943–). See informal economy.
Hawaiian terminology. A relationship terminology in which ego’s 
relatives are called by the same term if they are of the same generation and 
sex: so, male cousins are equivalent to brothers, female cousins to sisters; 
mother and mother’s sister (m and MZ) are equivalent, as are father and 
father’s brother (f = FB); and (for example) father’s sister and Ego’s mother 
(FZ = M).
One of several systems identified by G. P. murdock (see eskimo 
terminology and Murdock reference there), common in polynesia.
headman. A locally recognized leader in various cultures; the headman may 
have sole charge of a small group such as a band, or be subordinate in his 
turn within a larger group, to a chief.
headhunter. A member of a people who collect the severed heads of enemies; 
there are a number of explanations for the practice, some disputed.
healing. See disease, medical anthropology, shaman.
Hegel, G. W. F. (1770–1831). See cultural materialism, dialectical 
materialism, volksgeist.
hegemony. In general use, a term for leadership or dominance, especially by 
one corporate entity over another (from Greek, “leader”). In the thought of 
gramsci, the process by which the dominant class or elite retains its 
A
CD D C etc. C
A A B B
D
B
Ego
=
Figure 12 Hawaiian terminology.
Morris_c08.indd   116 Morris_c08.indd   116 12/1/2011   4:21:19 PM 12/1/2011   4:21:19 PM
position by obtaining the unreflecting consent of those below it. The elite 
uses cultural means to normalize a state of affairs advantageous to it, and 
thus does not require force alone to maintain it.
heliocentrism. In astronomy, a system that places the sun at the centre. In 
anthropology, may refer to G. Elliot smith and others’ belief in the impor-
tance of (sun-worshipping) Egypt to the development of world culture.
herder. See nomad.
Herder, J. G. (1744–1803). See culture, volksgeist.
Herdt, Gilbert (1949–). See homosexuality, masculinity.
heredity. In genetics, the transmission of particular characteristics from 
one generation of an organism to the next. In a similar way, heredity is syn-
onymous with legal principles of inheritance.
heritability. The quality of being capable of being inherited.
hermaphrodite. A person (or animal or plant) in whom anatomical charac-
teristics of both sexes appear to exist.
hermeneutics. The practice of interpretation: originally of religious texts, 
later of social situations, focusing on the meanings those involved ascribe to 
an event. In anthropology, associated with geertz and, later, the authors of 
WRITING CULTURE: in short, ethnography as an act of interpretation. See 
interpretive anthropology, thick description.
Herodotus (c. 484–425 bce). Greek historian, noted for the relative rigor of 
his work, who was also interested in people and places. He left early 
ethnographic descriptions of the Greeks’ “barbarian” neighbors.
Herskovits, Melville J. (1895–1963). American cultural anthropologist, 
born Ohio. One of boas’ students at Columbia, Herskovits went on to 
teach at Northwestern University and is principally known for his many 
contributions toward advancing African studies, such as establishing the 
first US university program on this subject in 1951. His numerous 
publications, often in collaboration with his wife, Frances, include The 
American Negro (1928), Man and his works (1948), and The human factor 
in changing Africa (1962). He also coined the terms cattle complex and 
enculturation.
Hertz, Robert (1881–1915). French sociologist. A student of durkheim 
whose career was cut short in World War I. Made more familiar to English 
readers by a 1960 translation of two essays, Death and The right hand.
Further reading: Parkin (1996).
Morris_c08.indd 117 Morris_c08.indd   117 12/1/2011 4:21:20 PM 12/1/2011   4:21:20 PM
Page 5


H
H or Hu. In relationship terminology, the abbreviation for “husband.”
Habermas, Jürgen (1929–). German philosopher, born Düsseldorf and 
 principally associated with the Frankfurt School (see critical anthropol-
ogy), whose work he continued (he was Adorno’s assistant for a time). 
A critic of rationalism and positivism, he has produced a number of 
works on sociology and social communication, including Theorie und 
Praxis (1962; Theory and practice, 1974) and Theorie des kommunikativen 
Handelns (1981; The theory of communicative action, 1984).
habitus. A set of received beliefs enabling structured social improvisation. 
The habitus allows people to create ways of achieving their aims within 
an existing context. The term was adapted from Latin by bourdieu. See 
disposition, practice theory, taste.
Further reading: Jenkins (2002).
Haddon, A. C. (1855–1940). British zoologist and anthropologist, leader of 
the torres straits expedition, which was seminal to the development of 
anthropology in Britain. Haddon was professor of zoology at Dublin from 
1880 and visited the Torres Strait to study coral; becoming interested in the 
people he encountered, he returned with a group of other scientists to study 
them. Following this famous expedition of 1898, Haddon became reader in 
ethnology at Cambridge (1909–26) and wrote a number of monographs, 
including Evolution in art: as illustrated by the life-histories of designs 
(1895), The races of man and their distribution (1909; new ed. 1924), and 
History of anthropology (1910; 2nd ed. 1934).
Morris_c08.indd 114 Morris_c08.indd   114 12/1/2011 4:21:19 PM 12/1/2011   4:21:19 PM
Haeckel, Ernst (1834–1919). See ecology, ontogenesis, phylogenesis, 
phylum.
Haiti. See voodoo.
Hall, Edward T. (1914–2009). See proxemics.
hallucinogen. A substance that, when ingested, acts on the central nervous 
system to alter perceptions or thoughts, for instance by causing hallucina-
tions. Hallucinogens, though often illegal in western societies, may be used 
to accompany ritual in some cultures. The best-known hallucinogens 
include plants such as peyote and synthetic substances such as LSD. See 
also drugs, shaman.
Hamilton, W. D. (1936–2000). See inclusive fitness, kin selection 
altruism.
Hannerz, Ulf (1942–). Swedish social anthropologist, long associated with 
Stockholm University, where he is professor emeritus. He has done fieldwork 
in the US, West Africa, and the Caribbean and engaged in urban anthro-
pology and studies of the media and globalization. His books include 
Soulside: inquiries into ghetto culture and community (1969; reprint with 
new afterword, 2004), Exploring the city: inquiries toward an urban anthro-
pology (1980), Transnational connections: culture, people, places (1996), 
and Foreign news: exploring the world of foreign correspondents (2004).
hapax or hapax legomenon. In linguistics, a word or form that occurs 
only once in a body of writing or work of an author. From Greek, “thing 
said once.”
happiness. See well-being.
haptics. The study of touch and the sensations derived from it. A haptic 
person or creature is more oriented toward touch than the other senses.
harijan. A synonym for dalit.
harmonic. According to lévi-strauss, a kinship system in which descent 
recognition accords with residence rules (so that, for example, those who 
hold recognized rights from a relationship with the father’s side of a family 
live with the husband’s relatives) is a harmonic regime. It is linked with 
generalized exchange.
A disharmonic regime entails oppositions: patrilineal descent/uxorilocal 
residence (i.e. rights via father/living with wife’s relatives), or matrilineal 
descent/virilocal residence (rights via mother/living with husband’s relatives). 
It also involves exogamy. See ma trilineality, pa trilineality, uxoriloca-
lity, virilocality.
Further reading: Lévi-Strauss (1969[b]).
Morris_c08.indd 115 Morris_c08.indd   115 12/1/2011 4:21:19 PM 12/1/2011   4:21:19 PM
Harris, Marvin (1927–2001). American anthropologist, born Brooklyn, 
New York. He obtained his doctorate from Columbia (1953), where he 
taught before becoming a professor at the University of Florida (1981–2000). 
He did fieldwork in Brazil. Best known as the prime mover of cultural 
materialism. His many works include The rise of anthropological theory 
(1968, updated 2001), Cultural materialism (1979, updated 2001), and 
Good to eat (1985).
Hart, Keith (1943–). See informal economy.
Hawaiian terminology. A relationship terminology in which ego’s 
relatives are called by the same term if they are of the same generation and 
sex: so, male cousins are equivalent to brothers, female cousins to sisters; 
mother and mother’s sister (m and MZ) are equivalent, as are father and 
father’s brother (f = FB); and (for example) father’s sister and Ego’s mother 
(FZ = M).
One of several systems identified by G. P. murdock (see eskimo 
terminology and Murdock reference there), common in polynesia.
headman. A locally recognized leader in various cultures; the headman may 
have sole charge of a small group such as a band, or be subordinate in his 
turn within a larger group, to a chief.
headhunter. A member of a people who collect the severed heads of enemies; 
there are a number of explanations for the practice, some disputed.
healing. See disease, medical anthropology, shaman.
Hegel, G. W. F. (1770–1831). See cultural materialism, dialectical 
materialism, volksgeist.
hegemony. In general use, a term for leadership or dominance, especially by 
one corporate entity over another (from Greek, “leader”). In the thought of 
gramsci, the process by which the dominant class or elite retains its 
A
CD D C etc. C
A A B B
D
B
Ego
=
Figure 12 Hawaiian terminology.
Morris_c08.indd   116 Morris_c08.indd   116 12/1/2011   4:21:19 PM 12/1/2011   4:21:19 PM
position by obtaining the unreflecting consent of those below it. The elite 
uses cultural means to normalize a state of affairs advantageous to it, and 
thus does not require force alone to maintain it.
heliocentrism. In astronomy, a system that places the sun at the centre. In 
anthropology, may refer to G. Elliot smith and others’ belief in the impor-
tance of (sun-worshipping) Egypt to the development of world culture.
herder. See nomad.
Herder, J. G. (1744–1803). See culture, volksgeist.
Herdt, Gilbert (1949–). See homosexuality, masculinity.
heredity. In genetics, the transmission of particular characteristics from 
one generation of an organism to the next. In a similar way, heredity is syn-
onymous with legal principles of inheritance.
heritability. The quality of being capable of being inherited.
hermaphrodite. A person (or animal or plant) in whom anatomical charac-
teristics of both sexes appear to exist.
hermeneutics. The practice of interpretation: originally of religious texts, 
later of social situations, focusing on the meanings those involved ascribe to 
an event. In anthropology, associated with geertz and, later, the authors of 
WRITING CULTURE: in short, ethnography as an act of interpretation. See 
interpretive anthropology, thick description.
Herodotus (c. 484–425 bce). Greek historian, noted for the relative rigor of 
his work, who was also interested in people and places. He left early 
ethnographic descriptions of the Greeks’ “barbarian” neighbors.
Herskovits, Melville J. (1895–1963). American cultural anthropologist, 
born Ohio. One of boas’ students at Columbia, Herskovits went on to 
teach at Northwestern University and is principally known for his many 
contributions toward advancing African studies, such as establishing the 
first US university program on this subject in 1951. His numerous 
publications, often in collaboration with his wife, Frances, include The 
American Negro (1928), Man and his works (1948), and The human factor 
in changing Africa (1962). He also coined the terms cattle complex and 
enculturation.
Hertz, Robert (1881–1915). French sociologist. A student of durkheim 
whose career was cut short in World War I. Made more familiar to English 
readers by a 1960 translation of two essays, Death and The right hand.
Further reading: Parkin (1996).
Morris_c08.indd 117 Morris_c08.indd   117 12/1/2011 4:21:20 PM 12/1/2011   4:21:20 PM
hetaerism. An occasional synonym for primitive promiscuity.
heterarchy. A form of social organization involving equality among members, 
as opposed to their being ranked in a hierarchy. The term is mainly of 
interest to students of prehistory.
heteroglossia. A term from the work of bakhtin to describe multiple 
“voices” in literature and, by extension, other arenas.
Further reading: Smith (2004).
heuristics. The study or application of heuristic methods. A heuristic method 
is one that involves starting with an approach that offers a good chance of 
finding an answer to a given problem; if this approach is unsuccessful, the 
next most reasonable approach is tried, and a solution may eventually be 
found. A heuristic approach in education encourages the student to discover 
solutions for themselves. From Greek, heuriskein, “to find”; “heuristic” was 
first used by the poet Coleridge.
hierarchy. A system within which individuals, classes, or groups are 
ranked from greatest to least. Such a classification is widely used in 
natural sciences; it is also studied in such contexts as caste and other social 
stratification. Louis dumont famously characterized India as the land of 
“Homo hierarchicus.”
Further reading: Rio & Smedal (2009).
hieroglyph. A symbol used in some writing systems, most famously 
ancient Egyptian, to represent a concept, syllable, or sound, usually through 
the representation of a concrete object (e.g. an animal or tree). A kind of 
pictogram. The name means “sacred carving” in Greek and reflects a belief 
that the Egyptian system had mystical properties. Compare cuneiform.
highland/lowland. One of the many binary divisions that can be made in 
anthropological theory: between cultures and modes of life that are held 
to be distinguishable according to geographical factors. The distinction 
particularly crops up in South American ethnography (Andean societies, 
with their long—recoverable—history, versus Amazonian ones), in Southeast 
Asian agriculture and politics, as well as in the description of many other 
places with upland communities (e.g. Scotland).
Hinduism. An externally invented term (a “Hindu” in Persian and Urdu being 
simply an Indian) for the diverse interconnected religious traditions of 
South Asia, apart from islam. Although there are a vast number of local 
variations, Hindus often recognize the importance of three major deities—
Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva—as well as many goddesses and lesser gods. As 
with buddhism, there is a belief in the operation of karma and reincarnation, 
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