Indian Polity & Governance - 4 | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly - UPSC PDF Download

Internal Democracy in Political Parties

Why in News:

• It is probable that the Election Commission will address the matter of internal democracy in political parties.

Need for Internal Party Democracy

• Importance of Internal Party Democracy:
  • The lack of democracy within political parties can result in closed autocratic structures, which hinders citizens' constitutional rights to equal political participation.
• Reduction of Factionalism:
  • A leader with strong grassroots connections would have less chance of being sidelined, which would allow for reduced factionalism and division within political parties.
  • Examples include Sharad Pawar forming NCP and Mamata Banerjee forming All India Trinamool Congress after leaving INC.
• Transparent Processes:
  • A transparent party structure with fair processes for ticket distribution and candidate selection would prevent a select few powerful leaders from controlling the selection process.
  • The selection of candidates would represent the choice of the larger party.
• Accountability:
  • A democratic party would be accountable to its members, as they would face consequences in future elections for their shortcomings.
• Decentralization of Power:
  • Conducting elections at different levels (state and local) would create power centers and allow for decentralization of decision making, instead of it being concentrated at the top.
• Prevention of Criminalization of Politics:
  • The lack of a well-defined process for candidate selection has led to the issue of tickets being given based on vague concepts like winnability.
  • This has resulted in candidates with criminal backgrounds contesting elections.

What are the Causes of Absence of Internal Party Democracy?

• Nepotism: Lack of intra-party democracy has led to the promotion of nepotism in political parties where party leaders promote their family members to contest elections, leading to the establishment of succession plans for specific constituencies.
• Centralized Party Structure: The centralized mode of functioning of political parties and the anti-defection law of 1985 discourage party legislators from voting in accordance with their individual preferences in state and national legislatures.
• Lack of Legislative Framework: Currently, there is no specific law for regulating internal democratic processes in political parties in India. The Representation of the Peoples’ Act, 1951 only provides for the registration of political parties with the ECI. Additionally, ECI does not possess the statutory power to enforce internal democracy in parties or to mandate elections.
• Personality Cult: There is a tendency of hero worship in people which leads to the emergence of a dominant leader who establishes their own coterie, ending all forms of intra-party democracy.
• Manipulation of Internal Elections: The ability of those in power to manipulate internal institutional processes to consolidate power and maintain the status quo is unquestionable.

What are the Election Commission's Recommendations for Internal Democracy?

• Using Existing Guidelines: The Election Commission has relied on guidelines outlined in the Representation of the People Act, 1951, specifically Section 29A, to urge political parties to hold internal elections and ensure their leadership is re-elected or changed every five years. These guidelines also require parties to submit their constitutions.
• Push for Deregistration Powers: The Election Commission has previously requested the Law Ministry for the authority to deregister political parties, but this proposal has yet to be enacted.
• Rejection of Permanent President Idea: The Election Commission has recently rejected the idea of having a permanent president for political parties, calling it inherently undemocratic.

Steps for Ensuring Intra-Party Democracy

• Regular Organizational Elections: To ensure that political parties practice intra-party democracy, it is necessary for them to hold regular organizational elections.
• Informing ECI: Political parties must keep the ECI informed of changes in their office bearers and addresses to ensure transparency in the functioning of political parties.
• Documenting Expenses: Parties should also submit a document of expenditure incurred during elections and non-election periods.
• Election Observers: The political party is responsible for conducting elections at all levels, with national and state-level elections held in the presence of observers appointed by the ECI.
• ECI's Power: The ECI should have the authority to investigate allegations of non-compliance with provisions requiring elections and deregister a party until free and fair elections are conducted. This would give the ECI the power to enforce its guidelines and promote intra-party democracy.

Strengthening the CSR framework

Since the implementation of the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) regulations in India, as per Section 135 of the Companies Act 2013, the amount of CSR expenditure has been on the rise in the country. From ₹10,065 crore in 2014-15, it has grown to ₹24,865 crore in 2020-21. However, there is no available data to ascertain whether this rise in CSR spending correlates with the increase in profits of Indian and foreign companies (with registered offices in India).

Understanding Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

• CSR refers to the responsibility of corporations to contribute towards the social, economic, and environmental development of the society they operate in.
• The concept is based on the Gandhian philosophy of Trusteeship, which proposes that the wealthy individuals or corporations act as trustees to ensure the welfare of the society at large.
• In India, CSR is mandatory for companies under Section 135 of the Companies Act 2013, and they are required to spend a certain percentage of their profits on CSR activities.
• CSR activities can include initiatives related to education, health, environment, rural development, and other social causes.
• CSR is aimed at creating a positive impact on society and promoting sustainable development.

The Development of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in India:

• The Companies Act of 2013 is a significant piece of legislation that mandates and quantifies the expenditure for CSR in India. The government's inclusion of CSR is an effort to involve businesses in inclusive growth, welfare, and national development.
• The promotion of responsible and sustainable business philosophies is one of the broad goals of CSR, which encourages companies to develop innovative ideas and robust management systems.
• To identify companies that are required to establish a CSR Committee, Section 135(1) of the Act outlines thresholds based on the previous financial year, such as a net worth of Rs 500 Crore or more, turnover of Rs 1000 Crore or more, or net profit of Rs 5 Crore or more.
• The Companies (Amendment) Act of 2019 made CSR applicable to companies before the completion of three financial years.
• Companies must spend at least 2% of their average net profits from the three immediately preceding financial years on CSR activities each financial year.
• For companies that have not completed three financial years, the average net profits generated in the previous financial years shall be taken into account.
• The Companies Act of 2013 Schedule VII lists 17 CSR activities that are not part of the regular course of business and are appropriate for CSR.

Assessment of the Implementation of CSR Regulations in India:

• Companies can carry forward any amount spent over and above the minimum 2% requirement to the next three financial years.
• However, this provision may weaken the 2% requirement since it is only the minimum requirement, and companies should be encouraged to spend more than this.
• Several private companies have established their own foundations or trusts, to which they transfer the mandatory CSR funds for utilization, but it remains unclear whether this is permissible under the Companies Act and CSR regulations.

Geographical Disparity in Corporate Social Responsibility

• As per Section 135(5) of the Companies Act, companies are required to give preference to the local areas around them where they operate, which creates regional disparities.
• A report by Ashoka University’s Centre for Social Impact and Philanthropy suggests that more than half of India’s CSR companies are concentrated in 4 states, namely Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Gujarat while populous states like Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh receive little.
• An analysis of CSR spending between 2014-2018 indicates that while most CSR spending is in education, health and sanitation, only 9% was spent on the environment. Extractive industries such as mining operate in an environmentally detrimental manner in several states.

Monitoring Mechanism for CSR in India

• Companies in India are required to report their CSR expenditures annually to the Corporate Affairs Ministry (MCA) through the filing of an annual report, as per the current regulations.
• The monitoring of CSR is based on a board-led, disclosure-based regime where companies are expected to report their CSR spending and activities.
• However, it is unclear if these reports are reviewed and companies held accountable for their CSR spending.
• The Standing Committee on Finance has expressed concerns that the information available on CSR spending by companies is inadequate and challenging to access.

Recommendations by the high-level committee on CSR (2018)

• The current CSR framework should incorporate the recommendations of the 2018 high-level committee on CSR to improve the monitoring and evaluation regime.
• The recommendations include strengthening reporting mechanisms by providing more detailed disclosures regarding project selection, location, and implementing agencies.
• CSR should be included in the statutory financial audit, with details of expenditure included in the company's financial statement.
• There should be mandatory independent third-party impact assessment audits.
• The auditor should qualify CSR non-spend, underspend, and overspend as a qualification to accounts, rather than just a note to accounts.

Future Directions for CSR in India

• A centralized national-level platform should be created under the MCA where all States can list their potential CSR-admissible projects to help companies assess where their CSR funds would be most impactful.
• Invest India's 'Corporate Social Responsibility Projects Repository' on the India Investment Grid can serve as a guide for such efforts.
• The above model should be utilized for supporting deserving projects in aspirational districts and projects identified by MPs under the Government's Sansad Adarsh Gram Yojana.
• Companies should allocate at least 25% of their CSR funds for environmental regeneration in the areas where they operate.
• All CSR projects should be selected and implemented with the active involvement of communities, district administration, and public representatives.
• The MCA and line departments should exercise greater direct monitoring and supervision over CSR spend by companies through the line ministries (for public sector undertakings) and other industry associations (for non-public units) rather than just hosting all information on the Ministry's website.

6th East Asia Summit Education Minister’s Meeting

Why in News:

• India recently took part in the 6th meeting of the Education Ministers of the East Asia Summit, which was conducted in Hanoi, Vietnam.

The East Asia Summit

About the East Asia Summit:

• Established in 2005, it is a forum of 18 regional leaders for strategic dialogue and cooperation on key issues.
• First proposed in 1991 by the then Malaysian Prime Minister, Mahathir bin Mohamad.
• Six priority areas of cooperation include environment, education, finance, health, disaster management, and ASEAN connectivity.

Membership:

• Comprises ten ASEAN member states and eight other countries.
• Only an ASEAN member can chair the forum.
• Brunei Darussalam is the chair for 2021.

EAS Meetings and Processes:

• Annual Leaders' Summit usually held in the fourth quarter of every year, alongside ASEAN Leaders' meetings.
• Meetings of EAS Foreign Ministers and Economic Ministers also held annually.

India and EAS:

• India is one of the founding members of the East Asia Summit.
• In 2019, India unveiled its Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI) at the EAS in Bangkok.

Issues in India's Education Sector

• Inadequate Infrastructure in Schools
  • The lack of internet facilities and computers in schools is a major concern as only 12% of schools have internet facilities, and 30% have computers. This hinders students' access to digital resources and technology, which can have negative impacts on their education.
• High Dropout Rate
  • The high dropout rate in primary and secondary levels is a significant challenge for India's education sector. A significant number of students in the 6-14 age group leave school before completing their education, which leads to a waste of financial and human resources.
• Brain Drain
  • Due to cutthroat competition for getting admission in top institutes like IITs and IIMs, many students opt to go abroad for higher education. This "brain drain" deprives India of its brightest minds and talents.
• Mass Illiteracy
  
  • Despite constitutional directives and efforts to enhance education, around 25% of Indians remain illiterate. This leaves them socially and digitally excluded and can have negative impacts on the country's overall development.
• Lack of Technical and Vocational Education:
  • The development of technical and vocational education is unsatisfactory, resulting in an increase in the number of educated unemployed persons.
• Gender Inequality
  • Despite government efforts to ensure equal educational opportunities for both men and women, the literacy rate of women in India, particularly in rural areas, remains very low. This leads to a gender gap in education and further social inequalities.

Education Initiatives in India:

National Education Policy 2020 (NEP 2020):

• Encourages holistic, flexible & multidisciplinary approach to education
• Based on foundational pillars of access, equality, quality, affordability & accountability
• Aligned with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030

PM SHRI scheme:

• Develops more than 14,500 schools across India
• Exemplar schools offering mentorship to other schools in their vicinity
• All components of NEP 2020 included

PM- eVidya:

• Launched in 2020 to boost online learning
• Unifies all efforts related to digital/online/on-air education
• Enables multi-mode access for education using technology to minimize learning losses

e-Learning Platforms:

• Launched by the government to support online education
• Platforms include DIKSHA, SWAYAM MOOCS, Virtual Labs, e-PG Pathshala, and National Digital Library.

Enhancing India's Educational Setup

• Need to include problem-solving and decision-making subjects in school curriculum
• Hands-on learning experience prepares students for the outside world and workforce
• Integration of vocational learning with mainstream education
• Provision of right mentorship in schools, especially in government schools
• Ensuring students are guided in the right direction from the start
• Creating awareness of career opportunities to students

State of Healthcare Sector in India

• India's healthcare system is complex and includes government-run and private facilities
• Healthcare services provided to over 1.3 billion people
• Government initiatives like "Ayushman Bharat" to improve access to healthcare for rural population
• Healthcare system still faces challenges such as inadequate funding, shortage of healthcare workers, and inadequate infrastructure
• Need for both government and private sector to prioritize and address these challenges
• Access to good healthcare is important for the citizens of India

Potential of India's Healthcare Sector

• Competitive advantage in large pool of well-trained medical professionals
• Cost competitive compared to peers in Asia and Western countries
• Essential ingredients for exponential growth, including large population, robust pharma and medical supply chain, smartphone users, start-up pool, and VC funding
• 50 clusters for faster clinical testing of medical devices to boost innovation
• Healthcare sector is one of India's largest employers, employing 4.7 million people
• Generated 2.7 million additional jobs between 2017-22, over 500,000 new jobs per year.

Advantages and Growth Potential of India's Healthcare Sector

• Large pool of well-trained medical professionals provides a competitive advantage
• Cost competitiveness compared to peers in Asia and Western countries
• Essential ingredients for exponential growth include:
  • Large population
  • Robust pharma and medical supply chain
  • 750 million plus smartphone users
  • 3rd largest start-up pool globally
  • Easy access to VC funding
  • Innovative tech entrepreneurs looking to solve global healthcare problems
• 50 clusters established for faster clinical testing of medical devices to boost innovation
• Healthcare sector is one of India's largest employers, with 4.7 million people employed
• Generated 2.7 million additional jobs between 2017-22, which equates to over 500,000 new jobs per year.

Way Forward

• Investing in the construction of new healthcare facilities and upgrading existing ones.
• Increasing funding for healthcare services (currently 2.1% of GDP) and medical research.
• Increasing the number of healthcare workers by establishing more medical schools and training programs, and offering financial incentives to encourage healthcare professionals to work in underserved areas.

Accessibility of Quality Healthcare:

• Time-bound implementation of targeted programs to increase access to healthcare services for people living in poverty, lower castes, and women.
• Providing education and information about healthcare to underserved communities.
• Enforcing regulations, implementing quality control measures, increasing transparency, and conducting audits of health care programs.

Improving Mental Health Services:

• Increasing funding for mental health services.
• Training healthcare workers to better address mental health issues.
• Reducing the social stigma associated with mental illness.

Addressing the Root Causes of Health Inequities:

• Coordinating with other sectors, such as education, housing, and sanitation to address the social determinants of health.
• Reducing overall health inequities.

Sustainable Health Governance:

• Implementing better management systems.
• Strengthening healthcare regulatory bodies.
• Creating independent oversight mechanisms to ensure more effective and efficient healthcare services.
• Taking suitable cybersecurity measures to secure critical medical infrastructure and data from any cyber attacks.

Tax Reductions:

• Incentivizing R&D by additional tax deductions to further support greater investments in new drug developments.
• Reducing GST on life-saving and essential drugs.

Towards One Health Approach:

• Recognizing that the health of people is closely connected to the health of animals and our shared environment.
• Implementing collective health initiatives covering healthy atmosphere, healthy animals, and healthy humans.

First Constitutional Amendment

Why in News:

• A petition was filed in the Supreme Court of India challenging the restrictions on the fundamental right to freedom of speech and expression introduced by the first constitutional amendment act.
• The petitioner contended that the amendment undermines the basic structure of the Indian constitution.

The First Constitutional Amendment Act of India

Background:

• In 1951, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru introduced the First Amendment Bill that aimed to exempt land reforms measures taken by the government from judicial scrutiny and expand the range of restrictions on the right to free speech.

Fundamental Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression:

• The Indian Constitution under Article 19(1) (a) guarantees the fundamental right to freedom of speech and expression. However, this freedom is not absolute, and it is followed by Article 19(2), which lists "reasonable restrictions" on the right.

Reasonable Restrictions:

• The term "reasonable restrictions" was introduced by the first amendment that Article 19(2) imposed. The insertion of the term "reasonable" allows the courts to examine the legitimacy of the restrictions imposed by Parliament.

Romesh Thappar v State of Madras Case:

• In 1949, the petitioner challenged a provision of the Madras Maintenance of Public Order Act, 1949, as unconstitutional. This provision authorized the government to impose restrictions for the wider purpose of securing "public safety" or the "maintenance of public order."

Supreme Court Ruling:

• The Supreme Court defined the terms "public safety" and "public order" and struck down the provision as unconstitutional.

Overview of Constitutional Amendment

• The Indian Constitution is a blend of flexibility and rigidity.
• Article 368 of the Constitution gives power to the Parliament to amend the Constitution and defines the process for the same.
• The Parliament can modify any provision of the Constitution according to the prescribed procedure.
• Some provisions form the 'basic structure' of the Constitution, and these cannot be altered.
• The principle that certain provisions are part of the 'basic structure' of the Constitution was established by the Supreme Court in the Kesavananda Bharati case.

Procedure for Constitutional Amendment in India

The procedure for amending the Indian Constitution is a rigorous and multi-step process that involves both Houses of Parliament and the state legislatures. Here are the main points to keep in mind:

Initiation of the Bill:

• Only Parliament, and not the state legislatures, can initiate a constitutional amendment bill.
• The bill can be introduced by a minister or by a private member of Parliament, without requiring prior permission from the President.

Passage of the Bill:

• The bill must be passed separately by both Houses of Parliament by a special majority.
• A special majority means a majority of the total membership of each House, as well as a two-thirds majority of the members present and voting.
• Joint sittings of both Houses are not allowed for a constitutional amendment bill.

Ratification by State Legislatures:

• If the bill seeks to amend the federal provisions of the Constitution, it must also be ratified by the legislatures of at least half of the Indian states, by a simple majority.
• Simple majority means a majority of the members present and voting.

Assent by the President:

• Once the bill has been passed by both Houses of Parliament and ratified by the necessary state legislatures, if any, it is presented to the President for assent.
• The President is required to give his assent to the bill. He cannot withhold his assent or return the bill for reconsideration.

Enactment:

• After the President's assent, the bill becomes an Act, known as a constitutional amendment act, and is added to the Indian Constitution.

List of Important Constitutional Amendment Acts

1st Amendment Act, 1951:

• Enabled the state to create special provisions for the upliftment of socially and economically backward classes.
• Ensured the constitutional validity of land reforms that abolished the zamindari system.
• Added three grounds of restrictions on Article 19(1) of the Constitution that pertains to freedom of speech and expression: public order, friendly relations with foreign states, and incitement to an offense.
• Added Schedule 9 to protect laws that are contradictory to fundamental rights.

7th Amendment Act, 1956:

• Introduced the provision for having a common High Court for two or more states.
• Abolished Class A, B, C, and D States.
• Reorganized states based on linguistic lines.
• Introduced Union Territories, resulting in the formation of 14 states and 6 Union Territories.

10th Amendment Act, 1961:

• Incorporated Dadra, Nagar, and Haveli as a Union Territory in the Indian Union.

12th Amendment Act, 1962:

• Incorporated Goa, Daman, and Diu as a Union Territory in the Indian Union.

13th Amendment Act, 1962:

• Formed Nagaland with special status under Article 371A of the Constitution.

14th Amendment Act, 1962:

• Incorporated Pondicherry into the Indian Union.
• Provided legislature and council of ministers for the Union Territories of Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Goa, Daman and Diu, and Puducherry.

19th Amendment Act, 1966:

• Abolished the system of Election Tribunals and vested the power to hear election petitions in High Courts.

21st Amendment Act, 1967:

• Added the Sindhi language to the 8th Schedule of the Indian Constitution.

24th Amendment Act, 1971:

• Made the President’s assent to the Constitutional Amendment Bill compulsory.

25th Amendment Act, 1971:

• Curtailed the fundamental right to property.

26th Amendment Act, 1971:

• The amendment abolished the Privy Purse and privileges of former rulers of princely states.

31st Amendment Act, 1972:

• The amendment increased Lok Sabha seats from 525 to 545.

35th Amendment Act, 1974:

• The amendment terminated the status of Sikkim as a protectorate state and made it an ‘Associate State’ of India.

36th Amendment Act, 1975:

• The amendment made Sikkim a full-fledged state of India.

40th Amendment Act, 1976:

• The amendment empowered Parliament to specify the limits of the territorial waters, the continental shelf, the exclusive economic zone (EEZ), and the maritime zones of India.

42nd Amendment Act, 1976:

The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 is considered the most comprehensive amendment to the Indian Constitution, earning it the nickname 'mini-constitution'. The act made several changes to the Constitution, including:

• Replacing the preambles "SECULAR, SOCIALIST" and "unity of the Nation" with "unity and integrity of the Nation"
• Adding a new Chapter IV-A that outlines a Code of Ten Fundamental Duties for citizens
• Providing equal justice and free legal aid to economically disadvantaged classes
• Encouraging participation of workers in the management of industries
• Implementing measures to protect the environment, forests, and wildlife
• Limiting the Supreme Court's jurisdiction to decide the constitutional validity of a law
• Requiring the President to act under the advice of the Council of Ministers
• Disqualifying a person who holds any office of profit under the Government
• Allowing the government to deploy armed forces in any state
• Establishing the supremacy of Parliament and disallowing any constitutional amendment to be questioned in court on any ground
• Adding "Population Control and Family Planning" to the Concurrent List
• Prohibiting courts from invalidating laws made for implementing Directive Principles on the grounds of violating Fundamental Rights
• Creating new 'Tribunals': 323A for administrative tribunals and Article 323B for other matters
• Transferring five subjects from State to Concurrent List: Education, Forests, Weights & Measures, Protection of Wild Animals and Birds, and Administration of Justice.

44th Amendment Act, 1978:

The 44th Amendment Act made several changes to the Indian Constitution. Some of the key changes are:

• Constitutional protection for publishing parliamentary proceedings in newspapers.
• The President was empowered to send back advice from the Council of Ministers for reconsideration.
• Some powers of the Supreme Court were restored.
• Fundamental Rights Guaranteed by Articles 20 and 21 could not be suspended during a National emergency.
• The word "internal disturbance" was replaced with "armed rebellion".
• The President could declare a National Emergency only on the written recommendation of the Cabinet.
• The duration of a National Emergency should not be extended more than 6 months at a time.
• The right to property was taken out of Fundamental Rights and added as a legal right.
• Judicial review of the election of President, Governors, and LS Speaker was allowed.
• One DPSP was added, which required the state to minimize inequalities of income, status, facilities, and opportunities.

52nd Amendment Act, 1985:

• The 52nd Amendment Act introduced anti-defection laws with the addition of the 10th Schedule to the Indian Constitution.

61st Amendment Act, 1989:

• The 61st Amendment Act lowered the voting age from 21 to 18 for both Lok Sabha and Legislative Assemblies elections.

65th Amendment Act, 1990:

• The 65th Amendment Act established a multi-member National Commission for SC/ST, and removed the office of a special officer for SCs and STs.

69th Amendment Act, 1991:

• The 69th Amendment Act granted the Union Territory of Delhi the special status of 'National Capital Territory of Delhi'. A 70-member legislative assembly and a 7-member council of ministers were established in Delhi.

71st Amendment Act, 1992:

• The 71st Amendment Act added Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali languages to the Eighth Schedule of the constitution, increasing the total number of official languages to 18.

73rd Amendment Act, 1992:

• The 73rd Amendment Act recognized Panchayati Raj institutions and provisions related to them by adding a new Part-IX and 11th Schedule to the Indian Constitution.

74th Amendment Act, 1992:

• The 74th Amendment Act granted constitutional status to urban local bodies by adding a new Part IX-A and 12th Schedule to the Indian Constitution.

86th Amendment Act, 2002:

• The 86th Amendment Act made elementary education a fundamental right, providing free and compulsory education for children between 6 and 14 years of age. Additionally, a new Fundamental Duty was added under Article 51 A, requiring every citizen of India who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to their child or ward between the ages of 6 and 14 years.

88th Amendment Act, 2003:

• Introduced service tax under Article 268-A. Union levies the tax, and Union and States collect and appropriate it.

91st Amendment Act, 2004:

• Limited the size of the council of ministers to 15% of legislative members and strengthened anti-defection laws.

92nd Amendment Act, 2004:

• Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali languages were added to the Eighth Schedule, and the total official languages increased from 18 to 22.

96th Amendment Act, 2011:

• Changed the spelling of "Oriya" to "Odia."

97th Amendment Act, 2011:

• Granted constitutional status to cooperative societies, making the right to form them a fundamental right (Article 19). Added a new Directive Principle of State Policy (Article 43-B) and a new Part IX-B to promote cooperative societies.

100th Amendment Act, 2015

• Amended the first schedule of the Indian Constitution to exchange some enclave territories with Bangladesh, pursuant to the 1974 land boundary agreement between India and Bangladesh.

101st Amendment Act, 2016

• Introduced the Goods and Service Tax (GST).

102nd Amendment Act, 2018:

• Granted constitutional status to the National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC).

103rd Amendment Act, 2019

• Introduced a maximum of 10% reservation for economically weaker sections of citizens in classes other than those mentioned in clauses (4) and (5) of Article 15.

104th Amendment Act, 2020:

• Extended the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies. Removed reserved seats for the Anglo-Indian community in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies.

105th Amendment Act, 2021:

• Gave the states the power to create their own lists of Other Backward Classes (OBCs), restoring their autonomy in this matter.

Digital India Land Record Modernisation Programme

• The National Workshop on the Digital India Land Records Modernization Program (DILRMP), known as 'Bhumi Samvaad,' was recently launched by the Ministry of Rural Development. Additionally, the Ministry introduced the portal and dashboard for the National Generic Document Registration System (NGDRS).

What is the Digital India Land Record Modernization Programme?

The Digital India Land Record Modernization Programme (DILRMP) is a Central Sector scheme aimed at modernizing India's land records system. It was launched by the Cabinet in 2008 and was later renamed from the National Land Records Modernisation Programme (NLRMP). The programme seeks to establish an Integrated Land Information Management System (ILIMS) that will store data on parcel ownership, land usage, taxation, location boundaries, land value, and encumbrances, among other things.

Launch:

The DILRMP was approved by the Cabinet on August 21, 2008. The Computerization of Land Records (CLR) and Strengthening of Revenue Administration and Updating of Land Records (SRA & ULR) schemes were merged to form the DILRMP. The programme has been extended until 2023-24 to achieve its objectives while adding new schemes.

Implementation:

The Department of Land Resources is responsible for implementing the DILRMP, which falls under the Ministry of Rural Development. The ILIMS system aims to establish an acceptable framework for land records across different states, with each state having the option to add state-specific requirements.

Aim:

The primary aim of the DILRMP is to establish an updated land records system that is automated and allows for automatic mutation, interconnection of revenue and registration, integration of textual and spatial records, and replacement of the current system of deeds registration and presumptive title with conclusive titling with title guarantee.

Components :

• Computerisation of land records, including survey and re-survey.
• Computerisation of the registration process.
• Establishment of modern record rooms/land records management centres at the tehsil/taluka/circle/block level.
• Training and capacity building for government officials.

Benefits:

• Real-time access to land ownership records for citizens.
• Free access to records will reduce interactions with government officials and reduce rent-seeking and harassment.
• Public-Private Partnership (PPP) service delivery will increase convenience and limit citizen interaction with the government.
• Single-window service or web-enabled "anytime-anywhere" access will save citizens time and effort when obtaining Record of Rights (RoRs) and other certificates.
• Automatic and automated mutations will reduce fraudulent property transactions.
• Conclusive titling will reduce litigation.
• Certificates based on land data (such as domicile, caste, and income) will be available to citizens via computers.
• E-linkages to credit facilities will be enabled.
• Information on eligibility for government programmes will be available based on the data.

Other Related Initiatives

National Generic Documents Registration System (NGDRS):

• NGDRS replaces the manual land registration process with an online system for all land sale, purchase, and transfer activities.
• It promotes national integration and aims to establish a unified system for land registration across the country.

Unique Land Parcel Identification Number (ULPIN):

• ULPIN is like "Aadhaar for land" since it provides a unique identification number for each surveyed land parcel, which helps prevent land fraud, especially in rural areas where land records are often outdated and contested.