Indian Science and Technology | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

It is challenging to categorize the advancements in science and technology into a specific time frame. Instead, we need to consider the different phases of the science system itself. The developments during this period were a continuation of earlier progress. Therefore, it is important to revisit the achievements of ancient times, such as those by Aryabhatta and Varahamihir.

Science

Slowdown in Scientific Growth:

• During this period, the growth of science in the country slowed down, leading to a decline in its status as a leading nation in science.

Decline of Surgery:

• Surgery faced a decline because the dissection of dead bodies was considered suitable only for lower castes.
• As a result,surgery became associated with barbers, a decline from its previous status.

Astronomy vs. Astrology:

• Astronomy was gradually overshadowed by astrology, pushing it into the background.

Advancements in Mathematics:

• Despite the decline in other scientific fields, some progress was made in mathematics.
• The Lilawati by Bhaskar II, written during this period, remained a standard text for a long time, indicating its significance in the field of mathematics.

Development of Mathematics

• Geometry: Brahmagupta, in 668 CE, introduced a formula to calculate the area of any cyclic quadrilateral.
• Algebra: Brahmagupta established rules for working with negative numbers and zero. He began applying algebra to solve astronomical problems. In the field of indeterminate analysis, he found complete integral (whole number) solutions for equations like ax + (or -) by = C.
• Bhaskara, in 1200 A.D., made significant contributions to algebra by developing the concept of surds and introducing "partial symbolism."

• Advancements in Astronomy: Brahmagupta authored the Brahmasphuta Siddhanta and Khandakhadyaka, both of which were translated into Arabic and had a profound impact on Arabic astronomy.
• He proposed a revolutionary idea, akin to Newton's, that all objects fall to the earth due to a natural law, as the earth has the inherent quality to attract and retain things, though his explanation was not detailed.
• Bhaskara II also made notable contributions to astronomy through his work Siddhanta Shiromani, which includes a substantial chapter on mathematics called Lilavati. This chapter is so extensive that it could be considered a separate book.

Medicine

Golden Age of Indian Medicine (800 BC to 1000 CE):

• The period between 800 BC to 1000 CE is recognized as the Golden Age of Indian Medicine.
• Advancements were made in medicine through the use of minerals, particularly mercury.
• Oxides, chlorides, and sulfates of tin, iron, copper, silver, gold, and mercury were utilized from the 8th century AD, with some used as stimulants and rejuvenators.
• A salt-free diet was recommended for nephritis, while fatty and fleshy foods were prescribed for tuberculosis.
• Diagnosis was based on sensory examination, such as using the ear applied to the chest to assess lung conditions.
• While demons were believed to cause mental illnesses, practices like magic and prayers were not entirely excluded from medicine.
• Surgical procedures included caesarean sections, treatment of fistulas, rectal prolapse repair, bladder stone removal, abdominal tapping for dropsy, and cataract couching. Plastic surgery for the nose, often performed as punishment for adultery, was also practiced.
• Numerous books were written on plant sciences and the treatment of animals (e.g., horses, elephants). However, the breeding of high-quality horses was not achieved, leading to dependence on imports from Central Asia, including Arabia and Iran.
• The conquest of these regions by Muslim rulers created challenges for Indian rulers in securing a supply of good horses.

Chemistry and Metallurgy

Historians like D.D Kosambi and Burton stein is of view that technology of early medieval period was of constant factor. But there were some significant improvement in technology especially in Agriculture.

Improvement in irrigation

Increase in irrigation sources:Canals, lakes, tanks (tataka, eri), and wells (kupa and kinaru) expanded irrigation capabilities.

• Ruin of King Bhoja's reservoir and the grand Anicut built by the Chola dynasty are notable historical examples of irrigation infrastructure.
• Water-lifts operated by man and animal power were common. For instance, oxen were used to draw up water using leather buckets over a pulley-wheel.
• Devices like araghatta (in Rajasthan) and ghatiyantra: Mentioned in inscriptions and literature as water lifting technologies.
• Potgarland (mala): Usage of this device is supported by epigraphic evidence and references in Bana’s Harshacharita.
• Krishisukti of Kashyapa: This ancient text recommends the ghatiyantra operated by oxen as the most effective irrigation method.

Improvements in agricultural implements

Draw-bar and Threshing by Bullocks:

• There are references to a draw-bar that allowed cattle to move in circles for tasks like threshing and other work.
• The Ramacharita mentions threshing by bullocks using such a device.

Big Plough in the Tenth Century:

• A tenth-century inscription from Ajmer refers to a “big” plough, indicating advancements in agricultural tools.

Introduction of the One-Humped Camel:

• The one-humped camel was added to the stock of domestic animals and proved useful for ploughing.
• Xuanzang noted its use in Sind, and Khajuraho sculptures provide evidence of the camel’s further diffusion in India.

Weeding Implements:

• Separate implements were being used for weeding parasitic plants, showing the advancement in agricultural practices.

Advanced Knowledge of Weather Conditions:

• Advanced knowledge about weather conditions was utilized in agricultural operations, as mentioned in texts like the Gurusamhita and Krishinarashwara.

Improvement in Fertilizer Knowledge:

• Knowledge of fertilizers improved significantly, with the use of compost being well-known.

Crops

• More than one hundred types of cereals including wheat, barley, and lentils are mentioned in contemporary writings on agriculture.
• Cash crops such as arecanuts, betel leaves, cotton, and sugarcane are also noted.
• Rajashekhara(early tenth century) describes the excellent sugarcane of north Bengal, which yielded juice even without the use of pressing instruments.
• There was an increase in the production of spices, as testified by Marco Polo's accounts.
• Apart from improvements in agricultural technology, there is evidence of advancements in military technology.
• The increased frequency of horsemen in Indian sculpture indicates a growing emphasis on cavalry.
• Some sculptures at Khajuraho depict the use of saddles.
• The Hoysala sculptures illustrate the use of stirrups made of leather, wood, and rarely of iron.