Indian Society and Social Issues: January 2024 UPSC Current Affairs | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly PDF Download

Representation of Women in Indian Judiciary 

Context 

Supreme Court judge Justice B.V. Nagarathna said that more women judges are needed in the judiciary.

About: 

• Over the 73-year history of the Indian Supreme Court, a total of 268 judges have served. 
• Among these judges, only 11 have been women. 
• Notably, the Supreme Court has not yet had a woman Chief Justice. 
• Justice Beevi became the first Muslim woman judge of the Supreme Court, as well as the first woman Supreme Court Justice in Asia in 1989. 
• Since 1989, only 10 women have made it to the Supreme Court. Currently, there are only three female judges of the 33 Supreme Court judges. 
• Only 4.1% of all Supreme Court judges have been women, while the remaining 96% are men. 
• Status at High Courts: India currently has 25 high courts with a sanctioned strength of 1,114 judges. However, as per the Department of Justice’s website, only 782 judges are presently serving, leaving 332 judicial positions vacant. 
• Out of the working judges, only 107, accounting for 13% of all high court judges, are women. Notably, none of the 25 high courts in the country currently has a female chief justice, with the exception of the Gujarat High Court, where Justice Sunita Agarwal has been appointed by the collegium. 
• There are more women judges at the district court level than at the High Court level. According to a 2018 study conducted by the Vidhi Centre for Legal Policy, women are relatively better represented at 27% in the lower judiciary. 
• However, the study identified a significant barrier for women in higher appointments, particularly as district judges and at the high court level. The study suggests that a glass ceiling exists, hindering the upward progression of women in the judiciary beyond certain positions As per the report, the percentage of women judges exceeded 60% in only three of the smallest states: Goa, Meghalaya, and Sikkim, collectively hosting a total of 103 judges. 
• Conversely, for all other states, excluding Telangana and Puducherry, the percentage of women judges remained below 40%. Similarly, the India Justice Report (IJR) 2022 highlighted that women constitute a limited presence in the judiciary, with only 13% of High Court judges and 35% of Subordinate Court judges being women. Examining district courts, Goa led with the highest proportion of women judges at 70%, showcasing a notable contrast. 
• Following closely behind, Meghalaya (62.7%), Telangana (52.8%), and Sikkim (52.4%) demonstrated relatively high percentages of women judges at the district court level. The findings underscore the disparities in gender representation across different levels of the judiciary, as revealed by the India Justice Report. 
• The appointment of Justices Kohli, Nagarathna, and Trivedi to the top court in 2021 created history, as this marked the f irst time that so many females were appointed to the SC in one go. If the tradition of appointing the senior most judge as the Chief Justice of India (CJI) is maintained, Justice B.V. 
• Nagarathna is poised to become the country's first woman Chief Justice. However, her term as CJI is anticipated to be relatively brief, lasting for 36 days

Reasons for the Lack of Representation of Women: 

• Historical Reasons: Historically, legal and judicial systems worldwide have been male-dominated, and India is no exception. The legal profession has traditionally been perceived as a male domain, and this mindset has persisted over the years. 
• Societal Expectations and Stereotypes: Societal expectations often dictate traditional gender roles, and there may be stereotypes that cast women in roles that are seen as less compatible with the demands of a judicial career. 
• Educational Barriers: Limited educational opportunities for women can result in fewer female candidates entering law schools and subsequently pursuing a career in the judiciary. 
• Family and Cultural Expectations: Cultural norms and expectations regarding women's responsibilities within the family may dissuade them from pursuing demanding and time-consuming careers, such as a judicial career. 
• Gender Bias and Discrimination: Stereotypes about women's capabilities may lead to their exclusion from consideration for higher judicial positions. 
• Networking and Mentorship Opportunities: Male-dominated networks and mentorship structures within the legal profession may make it challenging for women to access the same opportunities for career advancement. 
• Appointment Procedure: The lower judiciary has a better representation of women than the High Court and Supreme Court. That’s perhaps because entry to the lower judiciary is through an examination, while the High Court and Supreme Court are decided by the collegium. 

Importance of Representation of Women in Judiciary: 

• Gender Equality: A diverse judiciary ensures a more inclusive and representative legal system. 
• Fairness and Impartiality: Having a judiciary that reflects the diversity of the population helps in dispelling biases and promoting impartial decision-making. 
• Inspiration and Role Modeling: Women judges can act as role models, encouraging more women to pursue careers in law. 
• Access to Justice for Women: Women may feel more comfortable and understood when their cases are heard by judges who share similar life experiences and perspectives. 
• Legal Interpretation and Legislation: Women judges can provide unique insights into legal interpretation and the development of legislation, particularly in areas related to gender-based issues, family law, and women's rights. Their presence can influence legal discourse and contribute to the evolution of more gender-sensitive laws. 
• Global Norms and Commitments: Internationally, there is a growing recognition of the importance of gender diversity in all sectors, including the judiciary. 

Conclusion

• The lack of representation of women in the judiciary, combined with the traditional exclusionary attitude towards women, has led to a lack of diversity within the judicial system. 
• Therefore, it is essential that efforts to increase diversity in the judiciary are made to ensure a more equitable court system. 
• There is a requirement to enhance transparency in the judicial system. This will create more opportunities for women to prove their mettle and create a level playing field.

Sapinda Marriage

Context

In a recent ruling in the case of Neetu Grover v. Union of India & Ors, 2024, the Delhi High Court dismissed a legal challenge to the constitutionality of Section 5(v) of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (HMA). This provision prohibits marriage between two Hindus if they are considered "Sapindas" of each other, indicating a close familial relationship.

Why Was the Law Challenged, and What Was the Court's Ruling?

• Arguments of Petitioner:
  • In 2007, the petitioner's marriage was declared void after her husband successfully proved that they had entered into a sapinda marriage, and that the woman was not from a community where such marriages could be considered a custom.
  • The petitioner challenged the constitutional validity of the prohibition on sapinda marriages, arguing that sapinda marriages are prevalent even when there is no proof of custom.
  • Hence, Section 5(v) which prohibits sapinda marriages unless there is an established custom, violates the right to equality under Article 14 of the Constitution.
  • The petitioner also argued that if the marriage had received the consent of both families, which proved the legitimacy of the marriage.
• Delhi Court’s Order:
  • The Delhi High Court found no merit in her arguments, holding that the petitioner did not provide “stringent proof” of an established custom, which is necessary to justify a sapinda marriage.
  • The court held that the choice of a partner in a marriage can be subject to regulation. With this in mind, the court held that the petitioner did not present any “cogent legal ground” to show that the prohibition against sapinda marriages was violative of the right to equality.

What is a Sapinda Marriage?

• About:
  • A sapinda marriage is one between individuals who are related to each other within a certain degree of closeness.
  • Sapinda marriages are defined under Section 3 of the HMA, as two persons are said to be “sapindas” of each other if one is a lineal ascendant of the other in the limits of sapinda relationship, or if they have a common lineal ascendant who is within the limits of sapinda relationship with reference to each of them.
• Lineal Ascendant:
  • Under the provisions of the HMA, on the mother’s side, a Hindu individual cannot marry anyone who is within three generations of them in the “line of ascent”. On the father’s side, this prohibition applies to anyone within five generations of the individual.
  • In practice, this means that on their mother’s side, an individual cannot marry their sibling (first generation), their parents (second generation), their grandparents (third generation), or an individual who shares this ancestry within three generations.
  • On their father’s side, this prohibition would extend up to their grandparents’ grandparents, and anyone who shares this ancestry within five generations.

• Section 5(v) of HMA 1955:
  • If a marriage is found to violate Section 5(v) for being a sapinda marriage, and there is no established custom that allows such a practice, it will be declared void.
  • This would mean that the marriage was invalid from the very beginning, and will be treated as though it never took place.

What are the Exceptions to the Prohibitions Against Sapinda Marriages?

• The exception is mentioned in Section 5(v) of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 and it states that if the customs of the individuals involved permit sapinda marriages, then such marriages would not be declared void.
• In other words, if there is an established custom within the community, tribe, group, or family that allows sapinda marriages, and if this custom is continuously and uniformly observed for a long time, it can be considered a valid exception to the prohibition.
• The definition of "custom" is provided in Section 3(a) of the HMA, stating that a custom must be continuously and uniformly observed for a long time and should have gained enough legitimacy among Hindus in a local area, tribe, group, or family, such that it has obtained "the force of law."
• However, certain conditions must be met for a custom to be considered valid. The rule in question must be "certain and not unreasonable or opposed to public policy," and in the case of a rule applicable only to a family, it should not have been "discontinued by the family."
• If these conditions are satisfied, and there is a valid custom permitting sapinda marriages, the marriage would not be declared void under Section 5(v) of the HMA.

Are Marriages Similar to Sapinda Marriages Allowed in Other Countries?

• France and Belgium:
  • In France and Belgium, the crime of incest was abolished under the Penal Code of 1810, allowing marriages between consenting adults.
  • Incest is the crime of sexual relations or marriage taking place between a male and female who are closely linked by blood.
  • Belgium maintained this legal stance even after introducing a new Penal Code in 1867.
• Portugal:
  • Portuguese law does not criminalise incest, implying that marriages between close relatives may not be prohibited.
• Republic of Ireland:
  • While the Republic of Ireland recognised same-sex marriages in 2015, the law on incest has not been updated to explicitly include individuals in same-sex relationships.
• Italy:
  • In Italy, incest is considered a crime only if it causes a "public scandal," suggesting that the legal framework takes into account certain circumstances.
• United States:
  • In the United States, incestuous marriages are generally banned in all 50 states. However, there are variations in laws related to incestuous relationships between consenting adults.
  • For example, New Jersey and Rhode Island allow such relationships under certain conditions.

Conclusion

The concept of Sapinda marriages, as regulated by the HMA, reflects an effort to preserve familial and social harmony by prohibiting unions within certain lineal ascendants. The law includes provisions that declare marriages void if they violate these restrictions unless there is a well-established custom permitting such marriages.
Internationally, various countries have different legal stances on incestuous relationships and marriages, showcasing the diversity of legal approaches to issues of personal choice and family relationships.

Survey to Assess Women Participation in Workforce

Context

Union Ministries of Labour & Employment and Ministry of Women & Child Development launched a joint survey.

About the Survey

• The Survey focuses on evaluating women friendly practices.
• It includes measures like running creches, ensuring equal pay for equal work.
• Based on the latest PLFS data indicating a rise in women’s participation from 23.3% in 2017-18 to 37% in 2022-23.
• It questions cover company policies on internal complaints committees, sexual harassment prevention, childcare facilities, equal pay, and flexible working hours.
• The survey ensures confidentiality, collecting only gender-related information without individual identification. Company details are also requested.

Vaccine Drive to Fight Cervical Cancer

Context

The Indian Government intends to initiate a three-phase vaccination drive against human papillomavirus (HPV) for girls aged 9-14, aiming to mitigate the risk of cervical cancer. The vaccine also offers protection against the HPV strains that cause cancer of the anus, vagina and oropharynx. Additionally, it also protects against the HPV strains that are responsible for genital warts.

What is Cervical Cancer?

• About:
  • Cervical cancer develops in a woman's cervix. It is the 4th most common type of cancer among women, globally and 2nd most common among women in India.
  • India contributes the largest share of the global cervical cancer burden; nearly 1 in every 4 deaths globally due to cervical cancer (as per The Lancet study).
  • Almost all cervical cancer cases (99%) are linked to infection with high-risk Human Papillomavirus (HPV) , an extremely common virus transmitted through sexual contact.
  • Effective primary (HPV vaccination) and secondary prevention approaches (screening for and treating precancerous lesions) will prevent most cervical cancer cases.
  • When diagnosed, cervical cancer is one of the most successfully treatable forms of cancer, as long as it is detected early and managed effectively.
  • India accounts for about a fifth of the global burden for cervical cancer, recording about 1.25 lakh cases and about 75,000 deaths each year.
• Types of Strain:
  • Persistent infections with certain high-risk HPV strains lead to nearly 85% of all cervical cancers.
  • At least 14 HPV types have been identified as oncogenic (potential to cause cancer).
  • Among these, HPV types 16 and 18, considered to be the most oncogenic, have been found to be responsible for about 70% of all cervical cancer cases globally.

Rise of Child Marriages in West Bengal

Context

Child marriage continues to be prevalent in India despite educational efforts, with a recent study published in Lancet highlighting a notable increase in occurrences in states such as West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
Although initiatives like the Kanyashree Prakalpa scheme seek to discourage early marriages, the persistent gap between advancements in education and rates of child marriage raises concerns, particularly in economically disadvantaged regions like Murshidabad. This analysis examines the Lancet study's findings, the implications for maternal health, existing policy interventions, and underscores the necessity for a holistic approach to address the issue of child marriage.

Relevance

GS – 02 (Judiciary, Children's Issues, Women's Issues, Gender, Government Policies & Interventions)

Prelims

• Increasing Legal Age of Marriage for Women, Child Marriage, Jaya Jaitly Committee, Protection of Children From Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (PCMA), 2006, International Conventions Regarding Child Marriage.

Mains question

• Analyze the findings regarding the rise of child marriages in West Bengal despite educational initiatives, and suggest a comprehensive strategy encompassing policy reforms, community involvement, and legal frameworks to tackle this persistent societal issue. (250 words)

Dimensions of the Article

• Trends in Child Marriage
• Kanyashree Prakalpa Scheme
• Implementation Challenges and Legal Framework

Child Marriage Trends

• While there is a nationwide decline in child marriages, a Lancet study reveals significant spikes in West Bengal, prompting a reassessment of current policies.
• Despite efforts such as the Kanyashree Prakalpa scheme, the state continues to experience a notable increase, necessitating a deeper exploration of the socio-economic factors fueling this trend.
• Impact on Maternal Health: The adverse effects of child marriage on maternal and infant health are evident, particularly in regions like Murshidabad, where recent infant mortality rates are linked to low birth weights resulting from early marriages.
• Addressing the interconnected issues of social challenges, poverty, and healthcare requires a holistic approach to tackle the underlying causes.

Kanyashree Prakalpa Scheme

• Kanyashree, a West Bengal government initiative, aims to uplift girls from economically disadvantaged backgrounds.
• The program offers financial assistance to families to discourage early marriages for their daughters before the age of eighteen, often driven by financial constraints.
• The primary goal is to empower girls from underprivileged backgrounds who face barriers to pursuing higher education due to economic hardships.
• Endorsed by the United Nations Department of International Development and UNICEF, the scheme comprises two main components:
• An annual scholarship of Rs. 1000.00
• A one-time grant of Rs. 25,000.00
• The annual scholarship targets unmarried girls aged 13–18 enrolled in classes VIII-XII in government-recognized regular schools or equivalent open schools, as well as those pursuing vocational/technical training courses.
• The recent removal of income barriers by the West Bengal government enhances the scheme's accessibility.

Challenges in Implementation and Legal Framework

• Enforcing laws against child marriage encounters difficulties in West Bengal, evident from the low number of cases registered under The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (PCMA), 2006, compared to states with smaller populations.
• Data from the Ministry of Women and Child Development reveals gaps in the implementation of existing laws.
• The Prohibition of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill, 2021, aims to raise the marriage age for women, signaling a recognition of the necessity for legal reforms.

Way Forward

• Addressing the challenge of child marriage in West Bengal requires a comprehensive approach. While existing policies have made progress, greater integration of social campaigns involving local communities, schools, and local governments is crucial.
• Raising awareness, fostering political commitment, and enforcing legal frameworks should align to address this entrenched societal issue. The district action plan initiated in 2022 should evolve into a collaborative effort involving stakeholders at all levels.

Idate Commission Report

Context

Recently, the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) stressed the significance of implementing the recommendations outlined in the Idate Commission report to address the issues faced by Nomadic, Semi-Nomadic, and De-Notified Tribes (NTs, SNTs, and DNTs) in India. 
The NHRC urged the government to either repeal the Habitual Offenders Act, 1952, or designate a representative from the De-notified Tribe community along with nodal officers as required by the Act. Additionally, it suggested the exclusion of DNTs/NTs/SNTs from SC/ST/OBC categories and the development of tailored policies for their welfare.

What were the Major Recommendations of the Idate Commission?

• About:
  • It was established in 2014 under the leadership of Bhiku Ramji Idate, to compile a statewide catalogue of Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs).
  • Another mandate was to recognize those excluded from Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST) and Other Backward Classes (OBC) categories and recommend welfare measures for their well-being.
• Recommendations:
  • Assign individuals not identified in the SCs/STs/OBCs list to the OBC category.
  • Enhance legal and constitutional safeguards by incorporating a third schedule into the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 to prevent atrocities and restore the feeling of security amongst the members of the community.
  • Create a permanent commission with legal standing for the DNTs, SNTs, and NTs.
  • Form a distinct department to address the welfare of these communities in states with significant populations.
  • Undertake a thorough survey of DNT families to determine their estimated numbers and distribution.

Who are Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes?

• About:
  • They are also known as 'Vimukt Jatis. These communities are among the most vulnerable and disadvantaged.
  • De-notified communities, once labelled as 'born criminals' during British rule under laws like the Criminal Tribes Act, 1871.
  • They were officially de-notified by the Indian Government in 1952.
  • A few of these communities which were listed as de-notified were also nomadic.
  • Nomadic and semi-nomadic communities are defined as those who move from one place to another rather than living in one place all the time.
  • Historically, Nomadic Tribes and De-notified Tribes never had access to private land or home ownership.
  • While most DNTs are spread across the Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST) and Other Backward Classes (OBC) categories, some DNTs are not covered in any of the SC, ST or OBC categories.
• Major Committees/Commissions for NTs, SNTs, and DNTs Communities:
  • The Criminal Tribes Inquiry Committee, 1947 constituted in the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh).
  • Ananthasayanam Ayyangar Committee, 1949.
  • Criminal Tribes Act, 1871 was repealed based on the recommendation of this committee.
  • Kaka Kalelkar Commission (also called first OBC Commission), 1953.
  • The B P Mandal Commission, 1980.
  • The commission also made some recommendations related to the issue of NTs, SNTs, and DNTs Communities.
  • The National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (NCRWC), 2002 held that DNTs have been wrongly stigmatised as crime prone and subjected to high handed treatment as well as exploitation by the representatives of law and order and general society.
• Distribution:
  • In India, roughly 10% of the population is composed of NTs, SNTs, and DNTs Communities.
  • While the number of Denotified Tribes is about 150, the population of Nomadic Tribes consists of about 500 different communities.
  • It has been estimated that South Asia has the world’s largest nomadic population.

What are the Challenges Faced by Nomadic Tribes?

• Lack of Basic Infrastructure Facilities: Communities lack essential facilities such as access to drinking water, shelter, and sanitation, which deprives them of basic amenities. Additionally, healthcare and education services are unavailable to them.
• Lack of Social Security Cover: Due to their frequent mobility, these individuals lack a permanent settlement, leading to an absence of social security coverage and exclusion from government welfare schemes that require documents like Ration Cards, Aadhar Cards and caste certificates.
• Bad Treatment by Local Administration: Due to the stigma of being labelled as criminals in the past, they continue to be treated as such and subjected to torture by the local administration and police.
• Ambiguous Caste Categorisation: The classification of castes is ambiguous for these communities, as they are categorized as Scheduled Castes (SC) in certain states and as Other Backward Classes (OBC) in others.

What Developmental Efforts have been Taken for these Tribes?

• Dr Ambedkar Pre-Matric and Post-Matric Scholarship for DNTs:
  • This Centrally Sponsored Scheme was launched in 2014-15 for the welfare of those DNT students who are not covered under SC, ST or OBC.
  • The scheme of Pre-matric Scholarships for DNT students is helpful in spreading education amongst DNT children, especially the girl child.
• Nanaji Deshmukh Scheme of Construction of Hostels for DNT Boys and Girls:
  • This Centrally Sponsored Scheme, launched in 2014-15, is implemented through State Governments/UT Administrations/Central Universities.
  • The goal of the program is to offer hostel accommodations to DNT students who do not fall under the categories of SC, ST, or OBC.
  • This support is intended to facilitate their pursuit of higher education.
• Scheme for Economic Empowerment of DNTs:
  • It aims to provide free competitive exam coaching, health insurance, housing assistance, and livelihood initiatives.
  • It ensures expenditure of Rs. 200 crores to be spent over five years beginning 2021-22.
  • The DWBDNCs (Development and Welfare Board for De-notified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Communities) has been tasked with the implementation of this scheme.

Multiple Sclerosis

It exhibits a diverse array of symptoms and can exhibit considerable differences in severity and progression from person to person. MS is an autoimmune disorder, wherein the immune system erroneously targets the protective sheath surrounding nerve fibers, disrupting the transmission of signals between the brain and the body.

Causes and Risk Factors

• Autoimmune Origin: MS is believed to have an autoimmune origin where the immune system attacks the myelin sheath, a fatty substance that surrounds and insulates nerve fibers in the CNS.
• Genetic and Environmental Factors: While there is a genetic predisposition, environmental factors such as vitamin D deficiency, certain infections, and exposure to certain climates are thought to contribute to the development of MS.
• Infectious agents such as viruses: Pathogens associated with the development or exacerbation of MS include bacteria, such as Chlamydia pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus-produced enterotoxins that function as superantigens, and viruses of the Herpesviridae (Epstein-Barr virus and human herpes virus 6) and human endogenous retrovirus families.

Types of Multiple Sclerosis

• Relapsing-Remitting MS (RRMS): The most common form is characterized by episodes of new or worsening symptoms (relapses) followed by periods of remission.
• Primary Progressive MS (PPMS): A more gradual onset of symptoms without distinct relapses and remissions leads to a progressive decline in function.
• Secondary Progressive MS (SPMS): Initially begins as relapsing-remitting MS but evolves into a more progressive form over time.
• Progressive-Relapsing MS (PRMS): A rare form with a steady decline in function along with occasional relapses.

Symptoms

• Motor Symptoms: Weakness, muscle spasms, and difficulties with coordination and balance.
• Sensory Symptoms: Numbness, tingling, and pain, often in the extremities.
• Visual Disturbances: Blurred or double vision, optic neuritis (inflammation of the optic nerve).
• Cognitive and Emotional Changes: Memory problems, difficulty concentrating, mood swings, and depression.
• Fatigue: Overwhelming fatigue is a common and often debilitating symptom.

Diagnosis and Evaluation

• Clinical Assessment: Neurological examination to evaluate motor and sensory function, coordination, reflexes, and overall cognitive function.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Imaging technique to detect areas of demyelination and inflammation in the CNS.
• Cerebrospinal Fluid Analysis: Examination of cerebrospinal fluid obtained through a lumbar puncture to check for abnormalities.

Treatment and Management

• Disease-Modifying Therapies (DMTs): Medications that aim to modify the course of the disease, reduce relapses, and manage symptoms.
• Symptomatic Treatment: Medications and therapies to address specific symptoms such as muscle spasms, pain, and fatigue.
• Rehabilitation Services: Physical therapy, occupational therapy, and speech therapy to enhance mobility, function, and overall well-being.

Prognosis and Outlook

• The course of MS varies widely among individuals, and predicting the progression of the disease is challenging.
• Advances in research and treatment options offer hope for improved outcomes and quality of life.

Living with Multiple Sclerosis

• MS management often involves lifestyle modifications, including regular exercise, a healthy diet, stress management, and adequate rest.
• Support from healthcare professionals, family, and support groups is crucial for coping with the physical and emotional challenges of MS.

Central nervous system (CNS)

The central nervous system (CNS) is a vital component of the human nervous system, playing a central role in coordinating and regulating bodily functions. It consists of the brain and spinal cord and serves as the primary control center for the entire nervous system.

Structure of the Central Nervous System

• Brain:
  • The brain is the most complex organ in the human body and is responsible for various cognitive, sensory, and motor functions.
  • It is divided into regions such as the cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem, and diencephalon.
• Spinal Cord:
  • The spinal cord is a long, tubular structure that extends from the base of the brain down the vertebral column.
  • It is composed of nerve fibers and serves as a conduit for nerve signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
• Functions of the Central Nervous System:
  • Integration of Information: The CNS integrates sensory information received from the peripheral nervous system (PNS), allowing the brain to process and interpret stimuli.
  • Motor Control: The CNS coordinates motor responses by sending signals to muscles and glands through the motor neurons of the spinal cord.
  • Cognitive Functions: Higher cognitive functions, such as memory, learning, reasoning, and emotions, are primarily controlled by the brain.
  • Autonomic Functions: The CNS regulates involuntary bodily functions, including heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and other autonomic processes.
  • Reflex Actions: The spinal cord plays a crucial role in reflex actions, which are rapid, involuntary responses to specific stimuli.
• Significance of the Central Nervous System:
  • Control Center: The CNS acts as the central control center for the entire nervous system, directing and coordinating responses to internal and external stimuli.
  • Homeostasis: Through various feedback mechanisms, the CNS helps maintain homeostasis by regulating physiological processes to keep the internal environment stable.
  • Adaptability: The CNS exhibits plasticity, allowing it to adapt to changes, learn from experiences, and reorganize itself in response to new information.
  • Conscious Experience: Consciousness, self-awareness, and the experience of sensations are functions facilitated by the CNS, particularly the brain.
• Protection of the Central Nervous System:
  • Skull and Vertebral Column: The brain is protected by the skull, while the spinal cord is enclosed within the vertebral column, providing physical protection against external trauma.
  • Meninges: Three layers of protective membranes called meninges (dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater) surround the brain and spinal cord.
  • Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): CSF, is a clear fluid that circulates the brain and spinal cord, provides additional cushioning, and helps maintain a stable environment.

Conclusion

Multiple sclerosis is a complex and multifaceted neurological disorder that poses challenges for both individuals affected and healthcare providers.

Cabo Verde Declared A Malaria-Free Country

Context

The World Health Organization (WHO) has certified Cabo Verde as a malaria-free country, becoming the third country to acquire the status in the African region.

Cabo Verde Attains WHO Malaria-Free Certification, Joining Mauritius and Algeria

• Cabo Verde has joined Mauritius and Algeria, certified in 1973 and 2019, respectively. 
• Till now, WHO has awarded the ‘malaria-free’ certification to 43 countries and 1 territory.
• Malaria burden is the highest on the African continent, which accounted for approximately 95% of global malaria cases and 96% of related deaths in 2021.

Cabo Verde: Island Oasis in the Atlantic with a Rich Volcanic Landscape

• Cabo Verde: Also known as Cape Verde, it comprises a group of islands around 620 km off the west coast of Africa. 
• It comprises a group of ten volcanic islands, which are divided into the Barlavento (windward) and Sotavento (leeward) groups.
• Location: It is located in the central Atlantic Ocean, off the northwest coast of Africa near Senegal, the nearest point on the African continent. 
• Capital: Praia in Santiago.
• Official Language: Portuguese 
• Westernmost Cape: Cabo Verde is named for the westernmost cape of Africa.
• The term cape refers to a large, narrow, elevated landform that extends into a body of water, such as an ocean, river, or lake. 

Caste Based Discrimination in Indian Prisons

Caste-based discrimination remains a persistent issue within Indian society, permeating even into its correctional facilities. 

• Despite constitutional provisions and international initiatives aimed at ensuring equality and dignity for all, the prevalence of caste bias in prisons underscores deep-rooted social inequalities. 
• This article delves into the various aspects of caste-based discrimination within Indian prisons, examining its prevalence, underlying causes, and the measures being taken to address this systemic issue.

Understanding Caste-Based Discrimination

• The caste system in India is a hierarchical social structure characterized by closed endogamous groups, with membership determined at birth and limited social mobility. 
• Within the prison context, caste-based discrimination manifests in various forms, including unequal allocation of tasks, biased treatment by prison staff, and segregation of inmates based on caste identities.

Prison Statistics in India

• According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) data for 2020, nearly 66% of prison inmates in India belong to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes. 
• This disproportionate representation underscores the intersectionality of caste and poverty, further exacerbating the challenges faced by marginalized communities within the prison system.

Root Causes of Caste-Based Discrimination

• The persistence of caste-based discrimination in prisons can be attributed to several factors, including:
• Historical Legacy: Despite societal advancements, the caste system continues to influence social interactions and institutional practices.
• Legislative Gaps: Existing laws often fail to address caste-based discrimination within prison administration, allowing biases to persist unchecked.
• Institutionalized Bias: The structure of the prison system reflects and perpetuates societal prejudices, affecting the treatment of inmates from marginalized communities.

Constitutional and International Framework

• Constitutional provisions such as Articles 15, 17, and 21 aim to safeguard individuals against discrimination and ensure their right to dignity and equality. 
• Additionally, international initiatives like the Nelson Mandela Rules emphasize the importance of treating prisoners with inherent dignity and prohibiting discrimination based on status.

Government and Judicial Interventions

• Efforts to address caste-based discrimination in prisons have also been made through legislative and judicial interventions:
• Model Prison Manual of 2016: Aims to standardize prison administration nationwide based on the principles outlined in the Nelson Mandela Rules.
• Judicial Pronouncements: Landmark judgments such as Rama Murthy (1997) and Shatrughan Chauhan v. Union of India underscore the importance of upholding fundamental rights, including the right to fair treatment and dignity, for all prisoners.

Measures for Equality and Inclusion

• Various recommendations have been proposed to promote equality and inclusivity within the correctional system:
• Establishment of Indian Prisons & Correctional Service: A proposed All India Service to ensure a more equitable approach to prison management.
• National Commission for Prisons: To serve as a specialized advisory body on prison-related matters.
• Regular Prison Inspections: Vital for identifying and addressing issues of overcrowding, inadequate healthcare, and discriminatory practices.
• Policy Sensitization: Implementation of policies aimed at prohibiting discrimination and harassment within prison environments.

Conclusion

Caste-based discrimination in prisons represents a significant challenge to India's commitment to equality and justice for all its citizens. Addressing this issue requires concerted efforts from policymakers, law enforcement agencies, and civil society to uphold the principles of dignity, equality, and human rights within the correctional system. Only through comprehensive reforms and sustained advocacy can India truly eradicate caste-based discrimination from its prisons and society as a whole.

Concerns Related to Anganwadi Workers

Anganwadi workers in Andhra Pradesh are on strike demanding better wages and benefits. The State government has invoked the Essential Services and Maintenance Act (ESMA), 1971, against protesting Anganwadi workers and helpers. The order prohibits strikes by them for six months in the State, citing the impact of their ongoing indefinite strike on the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) at Anganwadi Centres.

What are the Anganwadi Services and Role of Anganwadi Workers?

• ICDS Scheme and Anganwadi:
• The ICDS scheme was launched in India on 2th October 1975. It was renamed as Anganwadi Services and the services are now offered as part of the Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0.
• It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme implemented by the States/UTs providing early childhood care and development of the beneficiaries i.e children in the age group of 0-6 years, pregnant women and lactating mothers through a large network of Anganwadi workers (AWW) and Helpers (AWH).
• Services Provided by Anganwadi:

• It has been provided to all eligible beneficiaries, namely, children in the age group of 0-6 years, pregnant women and lactating mothers through the platform of Anganwadi Centres across the country.
• Three of the services viz. Immunization, Health Check-up and Referral Services are related to health and are provided through National Rural Health Mission & Public Health Infrastructure.
• Tracking of Anganwadi Services: ICT platform Poshan tracker has been designed to capture real-time data on implementation and monitoring of Anganwadi Services across the country.
• It provides a 360 - degree view of the activities of the Anganwadi Centre (AWC), service deliveries of Anganwadi Workers (AWWs) and complete beneficiary management.

Major Roles and Responsibilities of AWWs

• Community Outreach and Mobilization:
  • Registering Beneficiaries: Identifying and registering pregnant women, lactating mothers, and children under six years old who are eligible for ICDS services.
  • Mobilizing Communities: Encouraging community participation in Anganwadi activities, raising awareness about ICDS programs, and promoting healthy behaviors.
• Childcare and Early Childhood Education:
  • Managing Anganwadi Centers: Ensuring the cleanliness and hygiene of the center, maintaining records, and preparing teaching materials.
  • Providing Pre-school Education: Conducting age-appropriate play activities, storytelling sessions, and basic learning activities to prepare children for formal schooling.
  • Monitoring Growth and Development: Regularly measuring children's height and weight, identifying any developmental delays, and referring them for further interventions if needed.
  • Counseling Parents: Providing guidance on childcare practices, child nutrition, and healthy habits.
• Health and Nutrition:
  • Distributing Supplementary Nutrition: Providing hot cooked meals, take-home rations, and nutritional supplements to address malnutrition, especially among pregnant and lactating mothers and children under six years old.
  • Conducting Health Check-ups: Monitoring children's health for common illnesses, conducting basic health checkups, and referring them to health facilities if needed.
  • Also, to guide Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHA) engaged under National Rural Health Mission in the delivery of health care services.
  • Immunization: Assisting healthcare personnel in organizing and facilitating immunization drives for children, ensuring timely vaccinations.
  • Raising Awareness: Educating mothers and communities about health, hygiene, sanitation, and healthy child development practices.

What are the Major Challenges Encountered by AWWs?

• Meagre Remuneration: They are not recognised government employees and the monthly honorarium for Anganwadi workers is significantly lower than the minimum wage in many states, often falling between Rs. 5,000 and Rs. 10,000.
• This makes it difficult for them to meet their basic needs and discourages them from dedicating their full attention to their work.
• Delays in receiving their honorarium are also common, adding to their financial insecurity and hardship.
• Overburdened with work and responsibilities: Anganwadi workers are entrusted with a multitude of tasks. Also, State governments often assign them additional work like Covid-19 related duties, Census duties or implementation of govt schemes like Ayushman Bharat without any additional monetary benefits.
• This extensive workload often leads to burnout and hinders the quality of services they can provide.
• Lack of Proper Training and Resources: While Anganwadi workers undergo initial training, it often falls short of adequately equipping them to handle the complex tasks they face daily.
• Additionally, Anganwadi centres frequently lack essential resources like proper infrastructure, teaching materials, and medicines, further hindering their ability to function effectively.
• Lack of Social Recognition and Respect: Anganwadi workers often face societal stigma and a lack of recognition for their valuable contribution to the community. This lack of respect can negatively impact their morale and motivation.

Way Forward

• Elevated Compensation and Benefits:
  • Fair and timely alary revisions aligned with cost of living.
  • Robust social security packages including health insurance, provident fund, and maternity leave.
• Professional Growth and Recognition:
  • Dedicated career progression pathways with promotion opportunities.
  • Regular, intensive training programs in child development, health, nutrition, and early childhood education.
  • Formalized qualifications and certifications acknowledging their expertise.
• Enhanced Working Conditions and Resources:
  • Optimal staffing levels with additional Anganwadi helpers to reduce workload.
  • Modernised Anganwadi centers with improved infrastructure, equipment, and learning materials.
  • Tech-enabled solutions for efficient record-keeping, monitoring, and communication.