Indira Gandhi Era - 1 | Post Independence History for UPSC Mains PDF Download

Indira Gandhi, often referred to as the Iron Lady of India, is widely recognized as one of India's most formidable political leaders. She played a pivotal role in reshaping India's socio-political and economic landscape, both domestically and on the global stage. Her leadership saw India making significant progress in diverse areas such as agriculture, technology, social welfare, poverty alleviation, and the realization of the goals outlined in the Directive Principles of State Policy in the constitution.

Born on November 19, 1917, in Allahabad, Indira Gandhi became India's third Prime Minister, succeeding Jawaharlal Nehru and Lal Bahadur Shastri. She assumed office in 1966 and held the position until 1984, except for a brief hiatus from 1977 to 1980. In 1980, she was re-elected and remained in office until her tragic assassination in 1984.

The question of leadership succession within the Indian National Congress arose again in 1966, only two years after Shastri's untimely death. This period marked a fierce competition between the senior Congress leader Morarji Desai and Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi. Despite initial divisions within the party, the old guard eventually rallied behind Indira Gandhi. In January 1966, following Shastri's passing, the Congress legislative party elected Indira Gandhi as their leader. K. Kamaraj, a veteran of the Congress party, played a significant role in securing her victory.

At the time, many political leaders in India perceived Indira Gandhi as a weak leader and anticipated the possibility of manipulating her as a political puppet once she assumed office. The contest for leadership within the Congress party was decided through a secret ballot among its members of parliament, with Indira Gandhi prevailing over Morarji Desai with the support of more than two-thirds of the party's MPs. This election process can also be seen as a testament to the maturation of India's democratic system.

Challenges Faced by Indira Gandhi

Indira Gandhi encountered a series of formidable challenges during her tenure as Prime Minister. Notably, she had to confront the prospect of general elections in 1967, merely a year after assuming office. India's economic situation had further deteriorated due to successive wars and drought-like conditions. Nevertheless, Indira Gandhi displayed a resolute style of leadership that even unnerved her contemporaries, ultimately leading to her easy election victory in the 1967 general elections.

While the Congress party returned to power in these elections, its support base was gradually eroding due to mounting economic and social issues. Rising commodity prices, unemployment, economic stagnation, and a food crisis had fueled widespread discontent. Indira Gandhi faced early challenges, including the contentious devaluation of the rupee, which imposed hardships on Indian businesses and consumers. Additionally, a dispute disrupted the import of wheat from the United States. For the first time, the party lost its majority in several states, including Tamil Nadu.

Following the 1967 elections, Indira Gandhi began to pivot towards socialist policies, which significantly impacted India's economic landscape. Her economic strategy involved adopting and expanding upon the principles of the Nehruvian consensus, embracing concepts such as nationalization, centralization, and bureaucratic control of the economy. In 1969, under her leadership, 14 major banks were nationalized to expand formal financial services to the underprivileged. The regulatory environment, known as the "License Raj," placed significant control in the hands of the state, limiting the role of the private sector and contributing to public dissatisfaction.

This period also witnessed the emergence of regional political parties and the Naxalbari Movement, especially in West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. These developments were primarily a response to the economic crisis and the unequal agrarian structure prevailing at the time. The loss of majority in many states during the 1967 general elections raised questions about the effectiveness and functioning of the Congress party. Senior leaders contemplated strategies for the revival and strengthening of the Congress, including efforts to engage young blood in national politics, with K. Kamaraj, the National President of the Congress party, proposing the Kamaraj Plan in 1963.

Political Developments: The Split in Congress

Emergence of Leadership Rivalry
Following the demise of Lal Bahadur Shastri, the Indian National Congress found itself in a leadership vacuum. The party became divided into two factions, with one staunchly supporting Indira Gandhi and the other rallying behind the strong leader Morarji Desai. This schism within the Congress party, sparked by the issue of leadership, eventually led to a major split in 1967. Indira's supporters, who claimed to represent the genuine Congress, adopted the name Indian National Congress (R), with "R" signifying "Requisition." Those who opposed Indira identified themselves as the Indian National Congress (O), with "O" representing "Organization" or "Old." Indira Gandhi found herself facing two significant crises - one concerning her personal independence from the Syndicate and the other being the political turmoil surrounding the 1967 elections.

Existing Divisions
Before this formal split, Congress had already exhibited internal divisions into Congress Right and Congress Left. The Congress Right was backed by the old guard and the syndicate, while the Congress Left received support from Indira Gandhi's followers. These divisions, however, were not recognized as an official schism. In May 1967, the Congress Working Committee endorsed a radical Ten Point Program, which included initiatives like the centralization of power through bank nationalization, general insurance nationalization, land reforms, income and property ceilings, and public distribution of food grains. While the Syndicate formally approved this left-wing program, it further deepened the rift between the two factions.

Presidential Election Discord
The decisive split occurred after the death of President Zakir Hussain. The Syndicate backed the Speaker of Lok Sabha as the Presidential candidate, but Indira Gandhi had different plans. She sought to support Vice President V.V. Giri and encouraged him to file his nomination as an independent candidate. This move triggered a significant disagreement between Deputy Prime Minister Morarji Desai and Indira Gandhi, leading to Desai's departure from the party.

Presidential Election Outcome
S. Nijalingappa, the Congress President at that time, issued a whip in favor of the Syndicate's candidate, Reddy, instructing all MPs and MLAs to vote for him. Initially, Indira Gandhi quietly supported Giri, but she later openly endorsed him and called for a 'Conscience Vote,' allowing MPs and MLAs to vote freely. During the election, approximately one-third of the members voted in favor of V.V. Giri, who was subsequently elected as the President of India.

1971 Election and Indira's Ascendancy
In the 1971 election, the Congress (O), Samyukta Socialist Party, and the Bharatiya Jana Sangh formed a coalition known as the "Grand Alliance" to challenge Indira Gandhi and the Congress (R). However, this alliance failed to make a significant impact, and Indira's Congress (R) secured a substantial majority. Her popularity surged following India's victory in the 1971 war against Pakistan.

Syndicate vs. Indira
The Syndicate played a pivotal role in elevating Indira to the position of Prime Minister but had anticipated that she would heed their guidance. Instead, Indira formed her own trusted circle from various fields and attempted to marginalize the influence of the Syndicate.

Transition from a Single Party to a Multi-Party System

Emerging Challenges to Congress 

While the Congress party held a dominant position in Indian politics until the 1957 elections, it began facing increasing challenges. In the 1957 elections, the Congress remained unopposed across northern India. However, it encountered opposition in Orissa from the Ganatantra Parishad. In the Bombay province, its success was limited as the Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti and the Mahagujarat Parishad presented formidable challenges. The emergence of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in Madras was a concerning development for the Congress in southern India.

Congress Erosion in Kerala 
Notably, it was in Kerala where the Congress's authority suffered a significant erosion, reducing its standing to that of the second-largest party. In the elections, the Communist Party of India (CPI) won 9 seats, while the Congress secured only 6 out of 18 seats. In the assembly polls, the CPI, with support from independent candidates, formed the government. Nevertheless, the challenge posed by this setback was not yet substantial, and the Congress managed to secure 371 seats, with its share of votes increasing.

Decline in Congress's Dominance
The 1962 elections marked a decline in the Congress's voting percentage, resulting in a reduced seat count of 361 out of 496 parliamentary seats. During this period, the communists, the Swatantra Party (established by C. Rajagopalchari in 1959), and the DMK made notable improvements. However, it was the 1967 elections that proved to be a turning point in India's political landscape. The Congress suffered a severe setback as it, while securing a majority in the Lok Sabha, saw a significant reduction in its seats to 284 out of 520 available seats. This marked the shift from a single-party dominance to the emergence of a multi-party system in India.

Reasons for the Decline of Congress

Internal Problems within the Party

One of the primary reasons for the decline of the Congress party was the deterioration of its internal dynamics. The party lost its original character and sense of purpose as an agent of social and institutional change. Corruption, factionalism, and an increasing hunger for official positions began to plague the party's leadership. After the death of Nehru, the Syndicate, a group of influential party leaders, failed to manage internal party matters effectively. This was evident in arbitrary decisions, such as ticket distribution, which contributed to a rise in defections from the party.

Emergence of Anti-Congress Alliances
Another significant factor was the formation of alliances among opposition parties. Various opposition groups united to create anti-Congress fronts. For example, the Socialist Party joined forces with the Jana Sangh, while the Swatantra Party and Jana Sangh formed alliances in multiple states. These coalitions posed a collective challenge to the Congress's electoral dominance.

Defection of Affluent and Middle-Class Peasants
The Congress's policies, particularly land reforms initiated in the early 1950s, food grain policies, and the growing political awareness among landless individuals, were perceived as threats by the affluent and middle-class peasants. These individuals saw these policies as jeopardizing their newly acquired economic status and social standing. Rich and middle-class peasants held considerable influence over rural voters and could employ their economic clout and control over agricultural laborers to disrupt polling.

Emergence of Regional Parties
The rise of regional aspirations played a vital role in the Congress's decline. Various regional parties emerged, providing a platform for expressing and addressing regional concerns and interests. Notable examples include the DMK in Madras and the Akali Dal in Punjab. These regional parties garnered support by focusing on local issues and concerns, thereby diminishing the Congress's influence in those areas.

The Influence of a Multi-party System

(a) Era of Coalition Governments
The 1967 elections ushered in an era defined by the prevalence of coalition governments, a trend that continued to shape Indian politics until the 1984 elections. Coalition governments emerged in all Opposition-led states, with the exception of Tamil Nadu. This trend persisted until the 2014 elections, marking the first instance of a single-party majority since 1984.

(b) Rise of Political Defections
The introduction of a multi-party system also marked the onset of the politics of defection. Political horse-trading and frequent changes of allegiance among elected representatives created instability in governments. The government responded by enacting anti-defection laws to address this issue.

(c) Emergence of Regional Parties
The multi-party system witnessed the growing prominence of regional parties, a testament to their ability to form governments in various states. This shift underscored the significance of regional concerns and aspirations in Indian politics.

(d) Empowerment of Wealthy and Middle-class Peasants
Within Indian politics, the multi-party system elevated the status of affluent and middle-class peasants. Their increasing influence within rural social, economic, and political spheres was underscored by their capacity to wield both economic and political power.

(e) Changing Power Dynamics in the Congress
The balance of power within the Congress underwent a significant transformation. The authority of the Syndicate, a group of influential party leaders, suffered a substantial setback, while the position of Indira Gandhi was substantially bolstered. This shift in power dynamics within the Congress had profound implications for the broader Indian political landscape.

Era of Coalition Governments

Initiation of Political Transformation
The 1967 elections marked the dawn of an era characterized by short-lived coalition governments and a culture of political defections. These elections shattered the Congress party's monopoly on power within the states. Notably, the Congress was not replaced by a single party in any of the states, but rather by a multitude of parties, groups, and independent candidates. Coalition governments sprouted in all opposition-led states, with the exception of Tamil Nadu.

Stability Challenges in Coalition Governments
With the exception of the DMK government in Tamil Nadu and the Swatantra party-led government in Orissa, most coalition governments, whether formed by Congress or the opposition, struggled to maintain stability and retain power for extended periods. The inherent heterogeneity of the coalition partners led to constant tensions and internal strains. Parties, including the Congress, frequently engaged in the toppling of existing governments, changing alliances, and forming new administrations. During these political transitions, states would occasionally experience periods of President's Rule or even mid-term elections, which seldom resulted in significant changes to the assembly's composition.

Politics of Defections

Rooted in Regional Concerns

Many governmental changes in northern states were the direct result of defections or floor crossings by individual legislators, encompassing both party members and independent candidates. Coalitions at the regional level gained popularity as these parties demonstrated a deeper understanding of local issues and sought to address them more effectively. Corrupt legislators engaged in horse-trading and readily switched allegiances, primarily enticed by the allure of power or monetary rewards. In Haryana, where defections were initially observed, defecting legislators began to be humorously referred to as "Aaya Ram and Gaya Ram" (in-coming Ram and out-going Ram). Consequently, except for the two Communist parties and Jan Sangh, party discipline tended to erode. In 1967, sixteen states underwent elections, and the Congress lost its majority in most of them, managing to form a government in only one state. This election triggered a large-scale wave of defections. Between 1967 and 1971, a substantial number of MPs and over 1900 MLAs shifted between political parties. Governments in multiple states, starting with Haryana, crumbled as a result. Defectors were often rewarded with key ministerial positions, including the Chief Ministership in Haryana.

The Role of the JP Movement
Another major factor contributing to the coalition era was the JP (Jayaprakash Narayan) movement, which played a significant role in the imposition of the emergency and the eventual establishment of the Janata government. The Janata government was a conglomerate of various parties with differing ideologies, further cementing the presence of coalition governments at the national level.

J.P. Narayan and the Total Revolution

The 1970s marked a tumultuous period for India, characterized by a series of significant challenges. These challenges included the India-Pakistan war, the fluctuating popularity of Indira Gandhi, a rising tide of protests and gheraos, the emergence of the JP movement, the imposition of the Emergency, and the subsequent formation of the Janata Government. The India-Pakistan war exerted immense pressure on the country's resources, and the frequent conflicts over a span of ten years exacerbated precarious socio-economic conditions, diminishing the Congress party's popularity.

In this turbulent backdrop, Jayaprakash Narayan, also known as J.P., issued a resounding call for "Total Revolution." This call represented a unique, homegrown revolution in the post-independence era. Despite being a Sarvodaya activist, J.P., a revolutionary in his own right, could not remain indifferent to the deteriorating state of Indian politics. He was deeply concerned about issues such as corruption, manipulation, exploitation, social discrimination, unemployment, and the rise of authoritarianism. These concerns prompted him, along with other veterans of the freedom movement, to launch a Total Revolution aimed at addressing the pressing challenges facing post-independence India.

The Janata Government: A Central Coalition

In the midst of these significant political events, the Raj Narain case dealt a severe blow to Mrs. Indira Gandhi's political career. In 1975, the Allahabad High Court found her guilty of corrupt electoral practices during the 1971 general elections, barring her from contesting elections for the next six years. Other pressing factors, including economic crises, agrarian distress, and corruption, ignited widespread protests against the ruling Congress (R). In response to these mounting challenges, the Congress imposed a State of Emergency in the name of preserving national security, resulting in a 21-month period that is regarded as one of the most crucial and controversial phases in independent India's history. Details regarding the Raj Narain case and the Emergency are discussed later.

This tumultuous period gave rise to considerable political unrest and posed a significant challenge to Indian democracy. Consequently, the era of coalitions emerged at the central level following the 1977 general elections. During the election campaign, the Janata Party presented the Indian electorate with a clear choice: "democracy or dictatorship." The Janata Party secured a resounding victory in the elections.

However, the Janata Government faced numerous challenges and failed to achieve stability, eventually collapsing in 1979. This downfall was attributed to a range of factors, including mounting ideological and political divisions among various groups, the difficulty of implementing major economic reforms without sparking public discord, and escalating violence between Hindus and Muslims, which further fueled internal strife within the Janata party.

Furthermore, the waning popularity of the Janata government was exacerbated by the stalled prosecution of abuses committed during the Emergency period. The government struggled to substantiate most of the allegations and secured only a few convictions. Cases against Indira Gandhi had also reached an impasse due to insufficient evidence, causing public sympathy and anger from her supporters, who viewed the situation as a "witch hunt."

Amid these challenges, Morarji Desai's standing significantly eroded in 1979. Economic conditions worsened, and allegations of nepotism and corruption involving his family members emerged. On 19 July 1979, Desai resigned from the government and retired to his home in Mumbai. The deteriorating health of Jayaprakash Narayan also hindered his political activities, and his death in 1979 deprived the party of its most popular leader. Dissidents then promoted Charan Singh as the new prime minister, replacing Desai.

Analysis of Coalition Politics

The history of coalitions in India since 1977 illustrates a key aspect of coalition politics: coalitions may be formed with or without clear ideological foundations. However, it becomes evident that a combination of parties with little in common cannot foster the development of the norms essential for the stability of the political system. The future of coalitions hinges on this critical factor. India experienced a prolonged era of coalition politics until 2014 when the BJP secured a sweeping majority at the center.

As India transitioned from a centralized federation, the Congress party held dominance, but as the federation began to decentralize, a multitude of parties emerged at the state level. The rise of regional political parties was both a natural progression and a response to the perceived over-centralization by key national leaders and Congress governments in the 1970s and 1980s. The decline of the Congress party in a one-party dominated system, coupled with the emergence of various new political parties at various levels, led to regional political parties assuming significant roles within the Indian political system.

The emergence of formidable regional political parties such as the DMK, TDP, AIADMK, TMC, JD(U), RJD, Shiv Sena, and Akali Dal has brought about a substantial shift in the dynamics of coalition politics at the national level. Concurrently, coalition governments have played a crucial role in reinforcing federalism and the decentralization of political power. This has allowed for a more diverse and distributed distribution of authority, further enhancing the balance of power in the Indian political landscape.