Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Kushanas, Western Kshatrapas | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Transition from the Mauryan Empire (200 BC onwards)

Key Developments in India Post-Mauryan Era

• Eastern and Central India: After the Mauryan Empire, the eastern and central regions of India saw the rise of several native dynasties. The Shungas,Kanvas, and Satavahanas were among the prominent rulers who succeeded the Mauryas in these areas.
• Deccan Region: The Deccan region also experienced the rule of local dynasties following the Mauryan period, contributing to the diverse political landscape of India during this time.

Influence of Central Asian Dynasties

• Northwestern India: In northwestern India, the Mauryan Empire was succeeded by a number of ruling dynasties that emerged from Central Asia. These dynasties played a significant role in shaping the political and cultural landscape of the region.
• The Kushans: Among these Central Asian dynasties, the Kushans became the most famous and influential. They expanded their rule over a vast territory that included northern India, parts of Central Asia, and even into the western regions of the Indian subcontinent. The Kushans are known for their contributions to trade, culture, and the spread of Buddhism during this period.

Foreign Invasion of Northwest India: Indo-Greeks/Indo-Bactrians

• A series of invasions began around 200 BCE, starting with the Greeks who crossed the Hindu Kush and ruled Bactria, located south of the Oxxus River in present-day northern Afghanistan. These invaders came one after another, with some ruling simultaneously.
• The Bactrian Greeks who governed parts of north-west India between the 2nd century BCE and the early 1st century CE are referred to as the Indo-Greeks or Indo-Bactrians. One significant factor behind these invasions was the weakness of the Seleucid Empire, which had been established in Bactria and the neighboring regions of Iran known as Parthia.
• The Greeks of Bactria were initially satraps(subordinate rulers) under the Seleucid Empire in West Asia. In the mid-3rd century BCE, Diodotus I revolted against the Seleucids and established an independent Bactrian Greek kingdom.
• Due to increasing pressure from the Scythian tribes, later Greek rulers struggled to maintain their power in the region. The construction of the Great Wall of China pushed the Scythians back from the Chinese border, leading them to turn their attention towards the neighboring Greeks and Parthians.
• Under pressure from the Scythian tribes, the Bactrian Greeks were compelled to invade India. The successors of Ashoka were too weak to halt the wave of foreign invasions that began during this period.
• The first to invade India were the Greeks, known as the Indo-Greeks or Indo-Bactrians. From Taxila, Demetrius, the Greek ruler of Bactria, sent two of his commanders, Appolodotus and Menander, for further conquests. Appolodotus conquered Sindh and marched up to Ujjain, while Menander extended his rule up to Mathura and attempted to capture Pataliputra, but was stopped by the army of Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra Sunga.
• In the early 2nd century BCE, the Indo-Greeks occupied a vast expanse of northwestern India, larger than the territory conquered by Alexander. They pushed as far as Ayodhya and Pataliputra. Around 145 BCE, they lost their hold over Bactria but continued to rule in the northwestern part of the subcontinent for several decades.
• However, the Greeks were unable to establish a unified rule in India. Two Greek dynasties ruled northwestern India simultaneously.

Menander (165–45 BCE):

• One of the most significant Indo-Greek rulers was Menander, also known as Milinda.
• He had his capital at Sakala(Sialkot) in Punjab and invaded the Ganga–Yamuna doab.
• Menander is known for the variety and widespread use of coins in his dominion.
• He was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena, also known as Nagarjuna. Menander posed various questions about Buddhism to Nagasena, and their dialogue was recorded in a Pali text called Milinda Panho or the Questions of Milinda.
• His rule extended over parts of Bactria and northwestern India.
• A fragmentary Kharoshthi inscription in present-day Pakistan refers to relics of the Buddha being enshrined during the reign of a king named Minedra, identified with Menander.
• Plutarch notes a conflict over Menander's ashes after his death.
• The Besnagar pillar inscription suggests that Antialkidas ruled up to Taxila, as his ambassador Heliodorus was a native of that city.
• A Greek ambassador,Heliodorus, became a Vaishnavite and erected the Garuda Pillar at Besnagar.
• Greek influence in India persisted for over a century after Menander's death.
• Indo-Greek rule in the Gandhara region ended due to conflicts with the Parthians and Shakas.
• The Indo-Greeks lost control over the area east of the Jhelum River in the late 1st century BCE or early 1st century CE, defeated by the Kshatrapa ruler Rajuvula.
• The names of many Indo-Greek rulers are known from their coins. Over-struck coins indicate either hostile relations between rulers or succession.
• The numerous kings within a short period suggest some ruled concurrently.

Importance of the Indo-Greek Rule:

• Indo-Greek rule is significant in Indian history due to the large number of coins issued by the Greeks.
• They were the first in India to issue coins definitively attributed to specific kings, unlike early punch-marked coins.
• The Indo-Greeks also introduced gold coins in India, which became more common under the Kushans.
• The Greeks introduced the practice of military governorship, known as strategos, to maintain control over conquered peoples.
• Hellenistic art features were introduced in northwestern India, with Gandhara art initially being Hellenistic before becoming more Indian.
• The Greeks introduced the concept of representing the Buddha as a human (idol worship).
• They contributed to the development of Indian theatre by introducing elements like curtains (Yavanika), stage management (Sutradhara), and backstage (Nepathya).
• Indian astrology was influenced by Greek ideas, with the term horasastra derived from the Greek horoscope.

The Coins of the Graeco-Bactrians

The Indo-Greek coins that circulated north of the Hindu Kush were made of gold, silver, copper, and nickel. They followed the Attic weight standard and featured Greek legends.

• Obverse: Royal portraits
• Reverse: Greek deities (e.g., Zeus, Apollo, Athena) along with the king's name and title.

Indo-Greek coins that circulated south of the Hindu Kush were made of silver and copper, often square in shape. They had bilingual inscriptions in Greek and Kharoshthi (less frequently, Brahmi) and followed an Indian weight standard.

• Obverse: Royal portraits
• Reverse: Religious symbols of Indian origin.

The coin series of King Agathocles is notable for depicting Samkarshana Balarama on the obverse and Vasudeva Krishna on the reverse. The coins of the Shakas, Parthians, and Kshatrapas followed the basic features of Indo-Greek coinage, including bilingual and bi-script legends.

The Shaka and Western Kshatrapas

The Greeks were succeeded by the Shakas, also known as the Scythians. The Shakas dismantled Greek authority in both Bactria and India, extending their control over a much larger portion of India than the Greeks had. The history of Shaka rule in India is primarily documented through inscriptions and coins.

Shaka Rule in India

• The founder of Shaka rule in India during the first century B.C. was Maues.
• An inscription discovered at Taxila refers to a Shaka king named Moga and his Kshatrapa (governor) Patika. Moga is often identified with Maues, whose name appears on various copper and silver coins similar to those issued by the Indo-Greeks.
• It is believed that Maues conquered the Gandhara region from the Indo-Greeks, although the latter managed to regain some of their lost territory.
• Some coins suggest a system of conjoint rule, where Spalirises and Azes I appeared to be co-rulers for a period.
• The Vikrama era of 58/57 BCE, still in use in India today, was once thought to mark the accession of Azes I, the son of Maues.

Two Main Groups of Sakas

• Northern Satraps: Ruling from Taxila. The Saka rulers of Taxila were eventually overthrown by the Parthians.
• Western Satraps: Ruling over Maharashtra.

Resistance and Vikramaditya

• The Shakas initially faced little resistance from the local rulers and peoples of India.
• However, around 57–58 BC, a king in Ujjain effectively fought against the Shakas and succeeded in driving them out during his reign. He adopted the title Vikramaditya, and an era called Vikrama Samvat is reckoned from his victory over the Shakas in 57 BC.
• From this point onward, the title Vikramaditya became highly coveted. Many Indian kings who achieved great things adopted this title, leading to as many as fourteen Vikramadityas in history, with Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty being the most famous.
• The title remained fashionable among Indian kings until the twelfth century, especially in western India and the western Deccan.

Shaka Rule and Western India

• Although the Shakas established their rule in various parts of India, only those who ruled in western India maintained significant power for an extended period, approximately four centuries.
• They benefited from sea-borne trade in Gujarat and issued numerous silver coins.

Kshatrapa Rulers: Kshaharatas and Kardamakas

• Bhumaka: Initially seemed to owe allegiance to Kanishka. His coins, with legends in Brahmi and Kharoshthi, have been found in coastal Gujarat, as well as in Malwa and the Ajmer area.
• Nahapana (c. 119–25 CE): Known for his coins and several inscriptions dated in what is likely the Shaka era of 78 CE. He held the titles kshatrapa, mahakshatrapa, and rajan at different times. His coins have been found in the Ajmer area of Rajasthan and the Nashik area in Maharashtra.
• At its peak, the Kshaharata kingdom included Malwa, Gujarat, Saurashtra, northern Maharashtra, parts of Rajasthan, and the lower Indus valley. The capital, Minnagara, is possibly identified with Doha, located between Ujjain and Broach.
• Nahapana’s son-in-law, Ushavadata, was the viceroy of the southern part of the kingdom. Several of his inscriptions have been found in the Nashik and Karle caves.

Conflict with the Satavahanas:

• The Shaka Kshatrapas were engaged in prolonged conflict with the Satavahanas, a powerful dynasty based in the Deccan.
• Control over certain areas, particularly those providing access to the western seaboard, frequently changed hands. For instance, the Nashik and Pune areas were likely conquered from the Satavahanas by Nahapana or one of his predecessors.
• In 124–25 CE, Nahapana was reportedly killed by the Satavahana ruler Gautamiputra Satakarni, who took over the southern territories of the Kshaharata kingdom. This is evident from Gautamiputra’s inscriptions in the Nashik and Pune districts, his re-striking of Nahapana’s coins, and statements in an inscription of Gautamiputra’s mother, Gautami Balashri.

Kardamakas:

• Contemporaneous with the decline of the Kshaharata dynasty, the Kardamakas emerged in western India.
• Chashtana: The founder of this dynasty, initially styled kshatrapa on his earlier coins and mahakshatrapa on his later ones, with the title rajan used throughout. He may have ruled in Sind as a subordinate of the Kushanas and later served as viceroy of the southwestern provinces of the Kushana empire.
• The Kardamakas practiced a system of senior and junior rulers, with titles of mahakshatrapa and kshatrapa. For instance, during Chashtana’s lifetime, his son Jayadaman and later his grandson Rudradaman I held the title kshatrapa.
• Rudradaman I (AD 130–50): Recognized as the most famous Shaka ruler in India. Known from his coins and more notably from his Junagarh inscription dated in the Shaka year 72 (i.e., 150–51 CE). He ruled over Sindh, Gujarat, Konkan, Narmada valley, Malwa, and Kathiawar.
• Rudradaman is notable for his repairs to the Sudarshana lake in Kathiawar, an ancient irrigation project dating back to the Mauryas. Despite his Central Asian ancestry, he issued the first long inscription in Sanskrit, as opposed to the previously common Prakrit.

Junagadh Inscription:

• A rock at Junagadh in Gujarat features a set of Ashokan edicts, an inscription of the Kardamaka ruler Rudradaman, and an inscription of the Gupta king Skandagupta.
• While Ashoka’s inscriptions discuss his dhamma, Rudradaman’s and Skandagupta’s inscriptions focus on the construction, maintenance, and repair of a water reservoir over about 1,000 years.

Rudradaman’s Inscription:

• Rudradaman’s inscription consists of 20 lines, written in Brahmi script and elegant Sanskrit.
• The inscription records the restoration of the Sudarshana lake by mahakshatrapa Rudradaman, originally constructed by Pushyagupta during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign and completed by Tushaspha during Ashoka’s rule.
• Rudradaman’s inscription recounts a storm in the winter of the year 72 (150 CE) that damaged the lake, initially deemed beyond repair.
• Rudradaman ordered the repair, overseen by amatya Suvishakha, who is praised for his exemplary qualities.
• The lake was reinforced to benefit cows and Brahmanas for a thousand years, emphasizing righteousness and fame.

Eulogy of Rudradaman:

• The inscription includes an eulogy of Rudradaman, detailing his genealogy and military achievements.
• He is said to have defeated the Yaudheyas and conquered regions including Malwa, Saurashtra, Gujarat, and northern Konkan.
• Rudradaman is noted for his compassion and adherence to dharma, with his subjects benefiting from his rule.
• The inscription portrays Rudradaman as an ideal king, chosen by all varnas to protect them, skilled in various sciences and arts, and known for his generosity and respect for others.
• The description serves as a portrait of an ideal king according to contemporary standards.

Sudarshana Lake:

• Skandagupta’s inscription mentions that Sudarshana lake burst its banks again in 455–56 CE during his reign, when he also undertook repairs.

The Shaka-Pahlavas or Scytho-Parthians

• After the Shakas dominated northwestern India, they were succeeded by the Parthians. In many ancient Indian Sanskrit texts, the Shakas and Parthians are often mentioned together as the Shaka-Pahlavas. Interestingly, both groups ruled over parts of India simultaneously for a period of time.
• The Parthians, also known as the Pahlavas, originally came from Iran before migrating to India. Unlike the Greeks and the Shakas, the Parthians occupied only a small portion of northwestern India during the first century AD.
• Our knowledge of the Scytho-Parthian rule in India primarily comes from inscriptions and coins. The Shakas and Scytho-Parthians governed through local rulers known as kshatrapas and mahakshatrapas, who played a crucial role in expanding their territories.
• Several kshatrapas are known from historical records, with Azes I extending his control into the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent and Azilises expanding further east into the Mathura region. The most renowned Parthian king was Gondophernes, during whose reign the Christian missionary St. Thomas is said to have come to India.
• Eventually, Gondophernes’ successors were driven out of northwestern India by the Kushanas. Over time, the Parthians, much like the Shakas before them, became an integral part of Indian society and polity.

 The Kushanas

• The Kushanas, also known as the Yuechis, followed the Parthians. They were one of the five branches of the Yuchi tribe, originally from Central Asia.
• A series of tribal movements in Central Asia led to the Hiung-nu defeating the Yueh-chi, causing the latter to move westward and displace other tribes. The Kushanas, a nomadic people from the steppes of north Central Asia near China, first occupied Bactria (north Afghanistan), displacing the Shakas. Gradually, they moved into the Kabul Valley and seized Gandhara by crossing the Hindu Kush, replacing Greek and Parthian rule in these areas. Eventually, they established authority over the lower Indus basin and much of the Gangetic basin.

Central Asian Empire

• The Kushan Empire extended from the Oxus to the Ganges, from Khorasan in Central Asia to Pataliputra in Bihar. It encompassed parts of Central Asia (now in the former USSR), a portion of Iran, Afghanistan, almost all of Pakistan, and much of northern India. This vast territory sometimes leads to the Kushan Empire in India being called a Central Asian Empire.
• The empire facilitated interaction among diverse peoples and cultures, resulting in a new type of culture that embraced nine modern countries. There were two successive dynasties of Kushans. The Kushana dynasty was founded by a group of chiefs known as the Kadphises, who ruled for twenty-eight years from around AD 50 under two kings.

Kujula Kadphises (Kadphises I):

• In the early 1st century CE, Kujula Kadphises (Kadphises I) united the five principalities and laid the foundations of a unified Kushana empire.
• He minted copper coins south of the Hindu Kush, imitating Roman coins. The presence of his coins south of the Hindu Kush suggests that the Kushana movement into the Indian subcontinent began during his time.

Vima Kadphises:

• Kadphises I’s son, Vima Kadphises, initially co-ruled with his father before ruling independently.
• He conquered Kandahar from the Parthians and expanded Kushana control over the Indus Valley and the Mathura region.
• He issued gold coins with grand titles like ‘Lord of the Whole World’ and was a devotee of Lord Shiva.
• While Kadphises I’s coins suggest a connection with Buddhism, Vima’s coins proclaim his devotion to Shiva.

Kanishka:

• The Kushana Empire reached its peak under Kanishka, who was not only a great conqueror but also a patron of religion and art.
• Kanishka’s reign began in 78 CE, and his successors dated their inscriptions from this era, known as the Shaka era, still used by the Government of India.
• The Rabatak inscription from Afghanistan, in the Bactrian language and Greek script, provides valuable information about Kanishka’s reign.

Kanishka’s Conquests:

• When Kanishka ascended to the throne, his empire included Afghanistan,Gandhara,Sind, and Punjab.
• He later conquered Magadha, extending his power to Pataliputra and Bodh Gaya.
• According to Kalhana, Kanishka invaded and occupied Kashmir.
• His coins have been found in places like Mathura,Sravasti,Kausambi, and Benares, indicating his conquests in the Gangetic plain.
• Kanishka also fought against the Chinese, annexing territories such as Kashgar, Yarkand, and Khotan, which significantly boosted trade.
• His empire stretched from Gandhara in the west to Benares in the east, and from Kashmir in the north to Malwa in the south, with Purushapura(modern-day Peshawar) as the capital and Mathura as another important city.

Trade and Expansion:

• B. N. Mukherjee suggests that the presence of diamond mines in Akara (eastern Malwa) and the trade potential of the lower Indus region drove Kushana expansion into these areas.
• The Kushanas became wealthy and powerful due to their conquests in the lower Indus region, with ports on the Makran coast becoming crucial in Indian Ocean trade networks.
• Mukherjee argues that the decline of this trade was linked to the decline of the Kushana Empire.
• Towards the end of his reign, Kanishka led an unsuccessful military expedition into Central Asia against the Chinese, being defeated and forced to pay tribute to Emperor Ho-ti.

Kanishka as a Patron of Buddhism

• Kanishka is celebrated in Buddhist texts as a great patron of Buddhism.
• He constructed chaityas and viharas in various locations.
• He is believed to have enshrined the Buddha’s relics in a stupa at Purushapura, which became a major monastery.
• His coins also featured images of the Buddha.
• Kanishka convened the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir, finalizing the doctrines of the Mahayana form of Buddhism.
• The council, held at the Kundalavana monastery near Srinagar in Kashmir, was presided over by Vasumitra and attended by about 500 monks.
• The Council prepared an authoritative commentary on the Tripitakas, solidifying the Mahayana doctrine.
• During Kanishka’s era, Mahayana Buddhism gained popularity, distinct from the teachings of the Buddha and those propagated by Asoka.
• Worship practices evolved, with the Buddha being venerated with flowers, garments, perfumes, and lamps, leading to the development of image worship and rituals in Mahayana Buddhism.
• Kanishka is said to have supported Buddhist scholars like Ashvaghosha,Vasumitra, and Nagarjuna.
• Ashvaghosha was a philosopher, poet, and dramatist, known for his work Buddhacharita.
• Nagarjuna, from South India, was a prominent figure at Kanishka’s court.
• Kanishka also patronized the famous ancient Indian physician Charaka and sent missionaries to Central Asia and China to promote the new faith.

Kanishka’s Religious Eclecticism:

• Kanishka’s coinage reflects a variety of religious motifs from Indian, Greek, and West Asian traditions.
• In addition to the Buddha and Shiva, his coins depicted Persian gods like Atash(a fire god) and Mithra(a sun god), as well as Greek deities like Helios(a sun god) and Selene(a moon goddess).
• This diversity of religious motifs is interpreted as Kanishka’s personal religious eclecticism or tolerance.
• At the royal policy level, it acknowledged the religious diversity within the empire and connected the kings with deities worshipped in and around their realm.
• The Kushana Empire originated as a Central Asian kingdom and expanded into Afghanistan and northwestern India, with Bactria as the center of the empire.
• The Bactrian language used in Kanishka’s coins and inscriptions highlights this origin.
• In India, the two significant political centers of Kushana power were Purushapura(Peshawar) and Mathura.

King as Divine:

• The Kushana kings adopted the title devaputra, elevating the king’s status to a divine level, a common practice in ancient empires.
• Historians suggest that the shrine at Mat near Mathura may have been a sanctuary for worshipping images of these kings.
• The Kushana Empire was organized into various tiers of control, with some areas under the direct control of the kings and others managed by subordinate rulers known as kshatrapa or mahakshatrapa.
• Some subordinate rulers merely acknowledged Kushana paramountcy and paid tribute, while others recognized the Kushana emperor’s suzerainty but were largely autonomous.

Other Rulers:

• The immediate successors of Kanishka included Vasishka,Huvishka,Kanishka II, and Vasudeva I.
• A massive rock at Hunza features Kharoshthi inscriptions mentioning the names of Kadphises,Kanishka,Huvishka, and various kshatrapas and mahakshatrapas.
• The empire began to decline around the time of Vasudeva I, in the mid-2nd century CE, with Vasudeva II being the last Kushana emperor.
• The decline of the Kushanas led to the resurgence of several polities that had been temporarily subdued by them.
• The Shaka Kshatrapas rose to prominence in western and central India.
• Coins, seals, sealings, and inscriptions provide evidence of various monarchies and ganas in different parts of north India, such as the Malavas, Yaudheya gana, and Naga kings.
• Inscriptions and coins also mention various local dynasties ruling from Ahichchhatra,Ayodhya, and Kaushambi.

The Indo-Sassanians

• The Indo-Sassanians, also known simply as the Sassanians, were a dynasty that ruled in the lower Indus region of India during the third century AD. They initially referred to this region as "Hindu," not in a religious sense, but to denote the people living along the Indus River. An inscription from AD 262 marks the first recorded use of the term "Hindustan" to describe this area, which later became synonymous with the whole of India in Mughal and modern times.
• Although their rule lasted for less than a century, the Indo-Sassanians significantly impacted the Indian economy by minting a large number of coins. These coins are crucial for understanding the political and economic landscape of the time and are a vital part of numismatic studies, which focus on coins as historical evidence.

Numismatic Evidence of the Kushanas:

• Numismatics, the study of coins, provides insights into the political and economic history of India. During their reign, the Kushanas were the first dynasty in the subcontinent to mint large quantities of gold coins. They also issued numerous copper coins of lower denominations, indicating the growing prevalence of a money economy.
• The widespread distribution of Kushana coins reflects the flourishing trade of the period. Coins minted by Kushana kings Kujula Kadphises and his son Vima Kadphises illustrate the practice of conjoint rule. Kujula's coins suggest a connection to Buddhism, while Vima's coins depict him as a devotee of Shiva.
• Kushana coins feature deities from various traditions, including Brahmanical, Buddhist, Greek, and Roman pantheons. This diversity in religious motifs is often seen as a reflection of the king's personal religious tolerance and an acknowledgment of the empire's religious diversity. The presence of Greek and Roman deities on these coins also highlights the significance of Indo-Roman trade during this period.
• The discovery of Kushana coins in distant regions suggests the empire's expansion into the Ganga Valley and southward into the Malwa region. While the Kushana influence extended to western and central India, the presence of coins as far east as Bengal and Orissa does not necessarily indicate political control over these areas.
• Coins minted by urban administrations in cities like Ujjayini, Kaushambi, Vidisha, Varanasi, and Taxila demonstrate the autonomy and authority of local administrations. Additionally, some nigama coins reflect the power of merchant guilds.
• In conclusion, numismatic evidence sheds light on the political and economic outlook of the Kushanas. However, it should be corroborated with other sources such as literary texts and inscriptions for a comprehensive understanding.

Significance of Deities on Kushana Coins

• The early Kushan kings produced gold coins with a higher metallic purity than those of the later Gupta period. While these coins are primarily found west of the Indus River, their inscriptions span a wider area, including northwestern India, Sindh, Mathura, Shravasti, Kaushambi, and Varanasi.
• This distribution indicates that the Kushans had established their authority not only in the Ganga–Yamuna doab but also in much of the middle Gangetic basin.
• Kushan coins, inscriptions, constructions, and sculptures discovered in Mathura suggest that it served as the Kushans' second capital in India, with Purushapura (modern Peshawar) being the first. Kanishka, a prominent Kushan ruler, is known to have erected a monastery and a massive stupa in Peshawar, which impressed foreign travelers.
• Important deities depicted on Kushana coins include:
• Greek: Herakles (Hercules), Zeus, Helios (the Sun god);
• Iranian: Mithra (the Sun), Mao (the Moon), Oado (the wind), Nana (the Nature goddess);
• Hindu: Oheso (Shiva), Ommo (Uma, consort of Shiva), Vasudeva (Vishnu); and
• Buddhist: Boddo (the Buddha).
• Examining the significance of these deities reveals several insights:
• Trade Significance: Some argue that the coins were minted for foreign trade, particularly with the Romans, reflecting the beliefs of these trade zones. However, this idea is challenged by the fact that the Kushana Empire enjoyed a favorable balance of trade, and even copper coins not minted for foreign trade exhibit similar features.
• Kushana Cultural Horizon: The variety of religious motifs on the coins reflects the Kushans' broad cultural horizon and religious syncretism. It acknowledges the religious diversity within the empire and the attempts of the kings to connect with the deities worshipped by different ethnic or ideological communities.
• Societal Nature: The depiction of deities, such as the Buddha, suggests a non-Brahmanical society characterized by trade, urbanization, and economic growth. The Buddhist society was primarily composed of traders and artisans, with less emphasis on the varna hierarchy, allowing easier access to society for foreign ruling groups.
• Legitimacy Efforts: The portrayal of Indian gods on Kushana coins indicates the efforts of the Kushanas, who were Central Asian in origin, to adopt Brahmanism and gain legitimacy. This led to the emergence of the Vrat-Kshatriyas, a social class claiming Kshatriya status.
• According to John M. Rosenfield, author of "Dynastic Arts of the Kushans," the deities on the coins were the divine companions and supporters of the Kushana monarchy. He argues that Kushana coinage served as a vehicle of propaganda, expressing the ruling house's ideology. Collectively, these coins convey concerns with material abundance, military triumph, legitimacy of rule, and divine sanction of the ruling house.
• Regardless of the motivations behind the introduction of such innovations, the deities depicted on Kushana coins reveal a remarkable aspect of the Kushana dynasty.

Counter Stuck Coins in Ancient India

• Counter struck coins refer to coins that were struck by one ruler and then restruck by another. The original strike is known as the "undertype," while the second strike or new strike is called the "overtype."
• Evidence of counter struck coins is primarily associated with the Satavahanas and Western Kshatrapas. For example, the silver coins of Nahpana (Western Kshatrap) were restruck by the Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satkarni with his own symbols.
• Another instance involves the silver coins of Nahpana being restruck by the Satavahana king Shiva Satkarni.
• Additionally, coins of Shiva Satkarni were restruck by Western Kshatrapa Nahpana.
• Counter struck coins indicate changes in political control and sway, representing the defeat of one power and the victory of another. They also suggest an approach to retain similar coins with slight modifications to indicate the change in authority.
• Furthermore, counter struck coins may reflect a scarcity of a particular metal.

Polity

• The Central Asian conquerors imposed their rule over numerous petty native princes, leading to the development of a feudatory organization.
• The Kushans adopted the title of 'king of kings,' indicating that they collected tributes from various small princes.
• The Shakas and Kushans reinforced the concept of the divine origin of kingship. While Ashoka referred to himself as 'dear to the gods,' the Kushan kings called themselves sons of god (Devputra). This title was borrowed from the Chinese, who referred to their king as the son of heaven. It became a way to legitimize royal authority in India.
• The brahmanical lawmaker Manu advised people to respect the king, even if he was a child, because he was a great god ruling in human form.
• The Kushans strengthened the satrap system of governance introduced by the Shakas. The Kushan Empire was divided into smaller units governed by Kshatraps or Satraps, marking the beginning of the Kshatrapa system.
• They also introduced the practice of hereditary dual rule, where both father and son ruled the same kingdom simultaneously.
• Under these rulers, there was less centralization, and the Greeks introduced the practice of military governorship, with governors known as strategos. Military governors were essential to maintain the power of the new rulers over the conquered populations.