International Relations: October 2023 UPSC Current Affairs | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly PDF Download

Israel-Palestine Conflict 

Context

• At the United Nations Security Council, India has reiterated its strong support for the just Palestinian cause and its unwavering commitment to the two-state solution.

Background

• There is an ongoing fight in Israel and the Gaza Strip. Roughly 200 Palestinians have died, and officials say nearly half of them are women and children. Israel has reported at least 10 dead.
• An escalation of fighting between Israelis and Palestinians has led the UN to warn of a “full-scale war”.

Firstly, where is the Gaza Strip?

• The Gaza Strip is an entirely artificial creation that emerged in 1948 when roughly three-fourths of Palestine’s Arab population was displaced, in some cases expelled, during the course of Israel’s creation. And most of the refugees, they were sort of scattered across the region in neighboring countries like Jordan, Syria and Lebanon.
• Some went to the West Bank, which came under Jordanian rule after 1948. And a very large number went to the Gaza Strip, which is this tiny little coastal strip between Egypt and what is now Israel. Today, the population of Gaza, about 70% of Gaza’s population are refugees.

Who controls it?

• Hamas forcibly took control over the Gaza Strip in 2007. Shortly thereafter, the Israelis imposed a complete closure on Gaza’s borders. They declared Gaza to be an enemy entity. Of course, Gaza is not a state.
• Hamas, of course, is viewed by Israel and by much of the international community as a terrorist organization, including the United States, for their history of attacks on civilians and so forth.

Israel- Palestine conflict- Historical Background

• The conflict has been ongoing for more than a 100 years between Jews and Arabs over a piece of land between Jordan river and the Mediterranean sea.
• It was between 1882 to 1948, when the Jews from around the world gathered in Palestine. This movement came to be known as Aliyahs. 
• Then in 1917, Ottoman Empire fell after World War 1 and the UK got control over Palestine.
• The land was inhabited by a Jewish minority and Arab majority.
• The Balfour Declaration was issued after Britain gained control with the aim of establishing a home for the Jews in Palestine. However during that period the Arabs were in majority in Palestine.
• Jews favoured the idea while the Palestinians rejected it. Almost 6 million Jews lost their lives in the Holocaust which also ignited further demand of a separate Jewish state.
• Jews claimed Palestine to be their natural home while the Arabs too did not leave the land and claimed it.
• The international community supported the Jews.
• In 1947, the UN voted for Palestine to be split into separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem becoming an international city.
• That plan was accepted by Jewish leaders but rejected by the Arab side and never implemented.

The creation of Israel and the ‘Catastrophe’

• It was in the year 1948 that Britain lifted its control over the area and Jews declared the creation of Israel. Although Palestinians objected, Jews did not back out which led to an armed conflict.
• The neighboring Arabs also invaded and were thrashed by the Israeli troops. This made thousands of Palestinians flee their homes. This was called Al-Nakba, or the “Catastrophe”.
• Israel had gained maximum control over the territory after this came to an end.
• Jordan then went on a war with Israel and seized control over a part of the land which was called the West Bank, and Egypt occupied Gaza.
• Jerusalem was divided between Israel in the West, and Jordan in the East. However, no formal peace agreement was signed, each side continued to blame each other for the tension and the region saw more wars.
• Israeli forces captured East Jerusalem and the West Bank, various areas of Syrian Golan Heights, Gaza and the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula in the year 1967.

Present scenario

• Israel still occupies the West Bank, and although it pulled out of Gaza the UN still regards that piece of land as part of occupied territory.
• Israel claims the whole of Jerusalem as its capital, while the Palestinians claim East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state.
• The US is one of only a handful of countries to recognise Israel’s claim to the whole of the city.

What’s happening now?

• Tensions are often high between Israel and Palestinians living in East Jerusalem, Gaza and the West Bank.
• Gaza is ruled by a Palestinian militant group called Hamas, which has fought Israel many times. Israel and Egypt tightly control Gaza’s borders to stop weapons getting to Hamas.
• Palestinians in Gaza and the West Bank say they’re suffering because of Israeli actions and restrictions. Israel say it is only acting to protect itself from Palestinian violence.
• Things have escalated since the start of the holy Muslim month of Ramadan in mid-April 2021, with nightly clashes between police and Palestinians.
• The threatened eviction of some Palestinian families in East Jerusalem has also caused rising anger.

Gaza Strip

Overview

Israel recently ordered a full siege of the Gaza Strip and vowed to obliterate Hamas after its all-out offensive entered the next phase.

About Gaza Strip

• The Gaza Strip is a self-governing Palestinian territory located on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.
• The territory takes its name from Gaza, its main city.
• It forms the smaller of the two Palestinian territories — the other being the West Bank.
• Bordering Countries: It is bordered by Israel to the north and east and Egypt to the south.
• Size: It is a 41km (25-mile) long and 10km-wide territory.
• Climate: It has a temperate climate, with mild winters, and dry, hot summer.
• Population:
• It is one of the most densely populated areas in the world. More than 2 million people live in the territory.
• The population is predominantly Palestinian, with the majority being Sunni Muslims.

History

• After Israel declared its statehood in 1948, Egypt controlled the Gaza Strip for nearly two decades
• Israel then gained control of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank after its victory in the 1967 Six-Day War against its Arab neighbours.
• For the next 38 years, Israel controlled thestrip and enabled the construction of 21 Jewish settlements.
• In 2005, under international and domestic pressure, Israel withdrew around 9,000 Israeli settlers and its military forces from the Gaza Strip, leaving the enclave to be governed by the internationally recognised Palestinian Authority, which also controlled parts of the occupied West Bank.

Who controls it now?

• Hamas, a Palestinian Islamist organisation, currently governs the Gaza Strip.
• It took control in 2007after it won elections there the year before. Since then, no elections have been held.
• Hamas, unlike the Palestinian Authority, doesn't recognize Israel's right to exist.
• Israel has maintained a land, air and sea blockade on Gaza since 2007.

India Tanzania Relations

Why in News?

Recently, Prime Minister of India thanked Dr John Pombe Joseph Magufuli, President of the United Republic of Tanzania for his assistance provided for the evacuation of Indian citizens from Tanzania in the wake of Covid-19.

• Both leaders reviewed the overall bilateral relationship and expressed satisfaction at the growing development partnership, educational linkages, trade and investment flows and discussed possibilities of further accelerating these trends.

Key Points

• Tanzania is one of the fastest-growing African countries of this decade and plays an important role in India-Africa relations.
• Tanzania and India have enjoyed traditionally close, friendly and cooperative relations.
• The High Commission of India in Dar es Salaam has been operating since November 1961 and the Consulate General of India in Zanzibar was set up in October 1974.
• In October 2019, as part of the Indian Navy's Overseas Deployment, four indigenously built ships of the Indian Navy visited the ports at Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar located in Tanzania.

Bilateral Treaties & Agreements:

• Agreement on the establishment of a Joint Trade Committee (2000).
• MOU for Co-operation in the field of Agriculture and Allied Sectors (2002).
• MoU on Exchange of Programme on Co-operation in the field of Education (2003).
• MOU on Defence Cooperation (2003).
• MOU for Cooperation in the field of Hydrography between Tanzania and India and Protocol on exchange of Hydrographic Data (2015).
• MOU on Cooperation in the field of water resource management and development (2016).
• Loan Agreement between Exim Bank and Government of Tanzania on line of credit for USD 500 million for water supply projects in 17 towns across Tanzania (May 2018).

Commercial and Economic Relations:

• India is the largest trading partner of Tanzania comprising 16% of Tanzania’s foreign trade.
• India is also among the top five investment sources in Tanzania.
• India’s major exports to Tanzania: Petroleum products, pharmaceuticals and chemicals, motor vehicles, electrical goods, articles of iron and steel, sugar, machinery, etc.
• Tanzania’s major exports to India: Gold ore, cashew nuts, pulses, timber, spices (mainly cloves), ores and metal scrap, gemstones, etc.

Development Partnership:

• Tanzania is a major beneficiary of training courses allocated under India’s Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation Programme/Special Commonwealth African Assistance Programme (ITEC/SCAAP) and under India Africa Forum Summit (IAFS) capacity building cooperation.
• India has executed a number of projects under government grants and soft loans in Tanzania.
• India provided essential medicines and vaccines as grant support to Tanzania in September 2018 and set up a radiation therapy machine ‘Bhabhatron-II’ for cancer patients.
• India has also extended a Credit Line to Tanzania for various water supply projects in Dar-es-Salaam, coastal Chalinze region, Tabora, Igunga, Nzega, etc.

Culture:

• The Indian Cultural Centre (ICC), Dar es Salaam under the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR), coordinates cultural outreach since its establishment in December 2010.
• The 5^th International Day of Yoga (21^st June) was celebrated in Tanzania in 2019.
• Indian Community:
• Tanzania is home to more than 50,000 people of Indian origin.
• The Indian origin community is active in the field of trade, industry and services in Tanzania.
• Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Award and ‘Bharat Ko Janiye’ quiz generate interest in Tanzania.
• Government of India organises Bharat Ko Janiye Quiz, which is an online quiz for Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) and Overseas Citizens of India (OCIs) between the age of 18 and 35 years.

Way Forward

• From the 1960s to the 1980s, the political relationship between India and Tanzania involved shared commitments to anticolonialism, non-alignment as well as South-South Cooperation and close cooperation in international fora.
• In recent years, India-Tanzania ties have evolved into a modern and pragmatic relationship with sound political understanding, diversified economic engagement, people to people contacts in the field of education and healthcare and development partnership in capacity building training, concessional credit lines and grant projects.

The China-Tibet Issue

The China-Tibet issue is a complex and longstanding geopolitical matter involving Tibet's relationship with the People's Republic of China. This Himalayan region, known for its unique culture and Tibetan Buddhism, became a focal point in 1950 when the People's Liberation Army of China entered Tibet. The result was the signing of the Seventeen Point Agreement in 1951, officially incorporating Tibet into the People's Republic of China.
A significant turning point occurred in 1959 when a Tibetan uprising against Chinese rule led to the exile of the 14th Dalai Lama, the spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism, to India. Since then, the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan government-in-exile have been advocating for Tibetan autonomy and the preservation of Tibetan culture and religion.
India is regularly drawn into the bilateral issue due to the presence of the in-exile Dalai Lama, further adding to the complexity of the situation. The ongoing efforts of the Dalai Lama and the exiled Tibetan government underscore the continued pursuit of autonomy and the protection of Tibetan identity amidst the geopolitical dynamics of the region.

China-Tibet: Historical Background

• Ancient Tribal Period: Tibet boasts a rich history spanning over 2,000 years, initially characterized by independent tribes and kingdoms.
• Introduction of Buddhism (7th Century CE): Buddhism was introduced to Tibet in the 7th century CE through the marriages of Tibetan King Songtsen Gampo to Princess Bhrikuti of Nepal and Princess Wencheng of China, both practicing Buddhists.
• Tibetan Empire (8th Century): The Tibetan Empire flourished in the 8th century, exerting influence over vast territories, including parts of China, India, Nepal, and Central Asia. This era saw the promotion of Buddhism, which became the predominant religion in Tibet.
• Mongol Influence (13th Century): The Tibetan Empire fragmented in the 13th century, falling under Mongol influence when Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty in China.
• Ganden Phodrang Government (17th Century): In the 17th century, the Fifth Dalai Lama established the Ganden Phodrang government, consolidating religious and political authority. The Dalai Lama became both the spiritual and temporal leader of Tibet.
• British and Chinese Rivalry (19th Century): During the 19th century, Tibet became a battleground for British India and China's influence. The 13th Dalai Lama sought British assistance, resulting in the 1914 Simla Accord recognizing Tibet as an autonomous region under Chinese suzerainty.
• Chinese Invasion (1950): In 1950, the People’s Liberation Army of the newly formed People’s Republic of China invaded Tibet, culminating in the 1951 Seventeen Point Agreement, officially incorporating Tibet into the People’s Republic of China.

Tibetan Autonomy

Tibetans’ discontent with Chinese rule culminated in a failed uprising in 1959, which led to the exile of the 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, and many Tibetans to India. The Dalai Lama established a government-in-exile in Dharamsala, India.

• During China’s Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), many Tibetan monasteries and cultural artifacts were destroyed, and Tibetan religious practices were severely restricted.
• In 1965, the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) was established, granting Tibetans a degree of autonomy within the framework of the Chinese government.
• Tibetan communities exist in various countries, primarily in India, Nepal, and the West, where they maintain their cultural and religious traditions.
• The Tibetan government-in-exile, also known as the Central Tibetan Administration (CTA), continues to operate in India and seeks greater autonomy for Tibet within the framework of the Chinese constitution.

China maintains that Tibet is an integral part of its territory and has implemented policies aimed at integrating Tibet into the Chinese state. However, Tibetans and many international observers argue that these policies have eroded Tibetan culture and autonomy.
Repression and Human Rights Concerns: Human rights organizations and governments have raised concerns about the Chinese government’s treatment of Tibetans, including restrictions on religious practices, cultural suppression, and political repression. There have been reports of protests and self-immolations by Tibetans in response to these policies.

Chinese stakes in Tibet

• Economic Development: China has invested significantly in Tibet’s economic development, including infrastructure projects, but critics argue that these initiatives often benefit Chinese settlers more than Tibetans and can lead to environmental degradation.
• Dialogue: There have been several rounds of talks between representatives of the Dalai Lama and the Chinese government, but progress has been limited, and no lasting resolution has been reached.
• Some countries and international organizations have expressed concern about the Tibet issue and called for dialogue between the Chinese government and the Tibetan leadership. However, China strongly opposes any external interference in what it considers its internal affairs.
• The annexation of Tibet and the consequent China-Tibet issues have had a prominent impact on the relations with India. Tibet acted as a buffer region between China and India until the annexation.

Indian stance on the China-Tibet issue

• Recognition of Tibet as Part of China:
  • Since 1950, China has claimed Tibet as an integral part of its territory.
  • India, in line with diplomatic norms and the "One China" policy, recognizes Tibet as part of the People’s Republic of China.
  • Balancing economic interests with political and security concerns in its dealings with China poses a delicate challenge for India.
• Refuge for Tibetan Government-in-Exile:
  • India has provided refuge for Tibetans who fled Tibet after the 1959 uprising against Chinese rule.
  • Dharamshala, India, hosts the headquarters of the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan government-in-exile.
  • India supports the Tibetan diaspora, allowing them to maintain cultural and religious practices, and permits the Dalai Lama's international travels, leading to occasional tensions with China.
• Middle Way Approach:
  • The Tibetan government-in-exile, headquartered in India, advocates the "Middle Way" approach, seeking genuine autonomy within the Chinese constitution.
  • India supports this approach, emphasizing a peaceful resolution through dialogue between the Chinese government and Tibetan representatives.
• Human Rights Concerns:
  • India expresses concerns about human rights violations and restrictions on religious and cultural freedoms in Tibet.
  • These concerns align with India’s broader commitment to human rights and democratic principles.
• India-China Border Dispute Influence:
  • The longstanding India-China border dispute, particularly in the Himalayan region, influences India’s approach to the Tibet issue.
  • The 1962 Sino-Indian War and ongoing border conflicts strain relations and shape India’s stance on Tibet.
• Limited Progress in Talks:
  • Despite sporadic discussions with China on the Tibet issue, progress has been limited.
  • The border dispute and broader geopolitical dynamics often overshadow and impact these talks.

Global stance on the China-Tibet issue

• Chinese Perspective:
  • Tibet is considered an integral part of China with historical ties.
  • Policies are aimed at modernization and development.
• Support for Autonomy:
  • India:
  • Recognizes Tibet as autonomous but provides asylum to the Dalai Lama.
  • Calls for peaceful resolution and greater autonomy.
  • Tibetan Government-in-Exile:
  • Advocates for genuine autonomy within the Chinese constitution.
  • Some factions seek full independence.
  • Other Countries:
  • Western nations like the U.S., Canada, and Europe support autonomy, human rights, and religious freedom.
  • Meetings with the Dalai Lama have strained relations with China.
• Non-Interference and Neutrality:
  • Some countries with ties to China remain neutral.
  • Emphasize non-interference and prioritize diplomatic and economic cooperation.
  • Bordering nations like Nepal and Bhutan avoid explicit recognition or advocacy for Tibetan autonomy.
• Human Rights Concerns:
  • International organizations express concerns about:
    • Restrictions on religious freedom and cultural suppression in Tibet.
    • Call for improved human rights conditions and transparent governance.
  • United Nations:
    • Generally avoids taking a position on Tibet's sovereignty.
    • Raises concerns about human rights, influenced by China's role in international organizations.

Conclusion

The future of Tibet remains uncertain. China has a strong grip on the region, and the international community has been unable to broker a solution that satisfies both Tibetan aspirations for autonomy and China’s territorial integrity concerns.
The China-Tibet issue is a sensitive and complex matter with cultural, political, and human rights dimensions. It continues to be a subject of debate and concern in the international community, with ongoing calls for dialogue and a peaceful resolution to the longstanding tensions between Tibet and the Chinese government.

Former Navy Personnel  Sentenced to Death in Qatar

Why in News?

Recently, a Qatari court has sentenced eight former personnel of the Indian Navy to death in the Espionage Charges.

• The individuals were arrested in August 2022 and faced charges related to breaching sensitive secrets.

What is the Background of the Case?

• Accusations:
  • The accused individuals, while employed by Al Dahra in Doha, were allegedly accused of breaching sensitive secrets at the time of their arrest in 2022 in Qatar.
  • Dahra Global Technologies and Consultant Services, the company they worked for, was also linked to the production of advanced Italian-origin submarines known for their stealth capabilities.
  • However the specific charges against the eight Indian nationals have not been made public by Qatari authorities.

• Previous Trials:
  • The case has seen two trials in March and June of 2023. While the detainees were granted consular access on multiple occasions, both Indian and Qatari authorities have maintained a veil of secrecy around the case, citing its sensitivity.
• India's Reaction:
  • India has expressed deep shock and concern over the death sentences imposed on its citizens and is exploring all possible legal options to secure their release.
  • The Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) has conveyed the high importance attached to this case and reiterated its commitment to providing consular and legal assistance to the detained individuals.

What are the Diplomatic Implications of this Case?

• The verdict could potentially strain relations between India and Qatar, where a significant number of Indian migrants contribute to fostering economic and diplomatic ties.
• With over seven lakh Indians in Qatar, the Indian government is under pressure to act at the highest level to save the lives of the detainees.
  • They are making their contribution in different sectors. Indians are highly respected in Qatar for their sincerity, hard work, technical expertise and law-abiding nature.
  • The remittances which the Indian expatriate community in Qatar send to India are estimated to be around 750 million dollar per annum.
• This case represents the first major crisis in the India-Qatar relationship, which has generally been stable.
  • The two nations have engaged in high-level meetings, with the Prime Minister of India visiting Doha in 2016, followed by meetings with the Emir of Qatar.
• Qatar is a significant supplier of liquefied natural gas (LNG) to India, accounting for a substantial portion of India's LNG imports.

What are the Options India has to Prevent these Navy Personnels?

• Diplomatic Options:
  • India can engage in direct diplomatic negotiations with the Qatari government to seek a resolution to the case. Given the strategic and economic importance of the relationship between the two countries, diplomatic leverage can play a significant role.
  • The government can also use diplomatic pressure to prevent meting out the death penalty.
  • Among the possibilities being looked at is filing an appeal against the verdict or using an agreement signed by India and Qatar in 2015 for the transfer of convicted prisoners so that they can complete their sentence in their home country.
  • NGOs and civil society can raise the issue at a global level, and pressure from the United Nations can be taken too.
• Legal Options:
  • The first step is to appeal within the judicial system in Qatar. The individuals sentenced to death can file appeals within the Qatari legal system.
  • India can provide legal representation to the detainees and ensure that their right to appeal is pursued vigorously.
  • If due procedures are not followed or an appeal process is missing, then India can invoke International Court of Justice (ICJ) jurisdiction.
  • ICJ acts as a world court with two fold jurisdiction i.e. legal disputes between States submitted to it by them (contentious cases) and requests for advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by United Nations organs and specialized agencies (advisory proceedings).

Way Forward

• The way forward is likely to be challenging and may require time and persistence. It's essential for India to remain committed to the well-being and legal rights of its citizens while navigating the complexities of international diplomacy and the legal process in Qatar.
• Successful resolution may require a combination of diplomatic efforts, legal actions, and international cooperation.

Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations

The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, signed in 1961, stands as a pivotal international treaty that governs diplomatic relations. Recent global news highlights its relevance amid diplomatic tensions between India and Canada. This treaty delineates the rights and protections afforded to diplomatic agents and their missions, along with the responsibilities of both sending and receiving states. It sets the groundwork for diplomatic immunity, the sacrosanct nature of diplomatic premises, and the expected conduct of diplomats.

The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961)

The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (VCDR) is an international treaty that was adopted on April 18, 1961, in Vienna, Austria, and entered into force on April 24, 1964. It is considered a cornerstone of modern diplomatic law and practice.
The treaty sets out the rights and responsibilities of diplomatic missions and their personnel, as well as the principles governing diplomatic relations between states.
The Vienna Convention aims to codify and clarify the rules and customs of diplomatic law. It provides a comprehensive framework for diplomatic relations to ensure the smooth conduct of diplomacy and the protection of diplomatic agents and missions.
The convention applies to diplomatic missions, which include embassies and legations, as well as to diplomatic agents, such as ambassadors, chargés d’affaires, and other accredited representatives of a sending state in a receiving state.

Some features of the convention are:

• Inviolability: One of the core principles of the VCDR is the inviolability of diplomatic agents and missions. This means that diplomatic agents and their premises are immune from the jurisdiction of the host state. The receiving state must protect the premises and agents against intrusion, search, and arrest.
• Diplomatic Immunity: Diplomatic agents enjoy various forms of immunity, including personal inviolability, exemption from taxes, and immunity from civil and criminal jurisdiction. This immunity facilitates their role in representing their home country and conducting diplomatic business.
• Freedom of Communication: Diplomatic agents have the right to communicate freely with their government. The VCDR ensures that diplomatic bags, documents, and communications are protected and not to be opened or detained.
• Non-Interference in Internal Affairs: The Vienna Convention explicitly states that diplomatic agents must not interfere in the internal affairs of the host state. They are expected to conduct their diplomatic activities in a manner consistent with the laws and regulations of the receiving state.
• Duty to Respect Laws and Regulations: Diplomatic agents are obligated to respect the laws and regulations of the host state. They must not abuse their privileges and immunities.
• Termination of Diplomatic Relations: The convention outlines the procedures for the termination of diplomatic relations between states, including the withdrawal of a diplomatic agent and the closure of a diplomatic mission.
• Consular Relations: The Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, adopted in 1963, complements the VCDR by establishing rules for consular relations between states. While the VCDR primarily deals with diplomatic missions, the Convention on Consular Relations focuses on consular missions and officers.
• Optional Protocols: The VCDR has optional protocols, which include additional provisions and reservations. States may choose to adopt these protocols to modify certain aspects of the convention to meet their specific needs.

Which other laws govern international diplomatic relations?

• Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (1963): Similar to the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, this treaty governs the establishment and conduct of consular relations between states. It outlines the rights and duties of consular officers and the consular premises’ inviolability.
• Customary International Law: Customary international law consists of long-standing practices and norms accepted by states. It plays a crucial role in diplomatic relations, as some diplomatic practices have developed over centuries and are considered customary.
• Bilateral and Multilateral Agreements: Many countries establish diplomatic relations through bilateral agreements, outlining the specifics of their diplomatic ties. Multilateral agreements, such as the United Nations Charter, can also influence diplomatic relations.
• State Sovereignty: The principle of state sovereignty is a foundational concept in international relations. It asserts that each state has the right to conduct its affairs without external interference. This principle is central to diplomatic relations.
• Recognition of States: The recognition of a state’s sovereignty and territorial integrity is a critical aspect of diplomatic relations. States formally recognize each other, indicating their willingness to engage in diplomatic relations.
• Customary Courtesy: Diplomatic relations are also guided by the principles of good faith and customary courtesy. States are expected to engage with each other respectfully and cooperatively.
• International Organizations: Various international organizations, such as the United Nations and regional organizations, play roles in facilitating diplomatic relations, especially in conflict resolution and peacekeeping efforts.
• Treaties and Conventions: International treaties and conventions, such as those related to human rights, environmental protection, and trade, can influence diplomatic relations. States may engage in diplomatic efforts to negotiate, implement, and comply with these agreements.
• Diplomatic Protocols: Specific protocols and guidelines govern diplomatic practices, including the presentation of credentials, the exchange of diplomats, and diplomatic ceremonies. These are often rooted in tradition and international norms.

What is diplomatic immunity?

Diplomatic immunity is a set of privileges and immunities granted to diplomats and foreign diplomatic personnel who are stationed in a foreign country as part of their diplomatic missions. It is a fundamental principle of international law and diplomatic practice.
The main purpose of diplomatic immunity is to facilitate the conduct of international relations and ensure the safety and security of diplomats.

• Exemption from Criminal Jurisdiction: Diplomats are immune from the criminal jurisdiction of the host country. They cannot be arrested, detained, or prosecuted for any crime, regardless of its nature, while they are serving in their diplomatic capacity. This immunity extends to their family members and diplomatic staff.
• Exemption from Civil Jurisdiction: Diplomats also enjoy immunity from the civil jurisdiction of the host country. They cannot be sued in host country courts for civil matters, such as contractual disputes or property disputes.
• Inviolability of Diplomatic Premises: The embassy or diplomatic mission itself is considered inviolable. Host country authorities cannot enter these premises without the permission of the sending state. This ensures that diplomatic correspondence and property remain secure.
• Protection of Personal Inviolability: Diplomats and their families are protected from any form of harassment, including personal searches and taxation. They are also exempt from customs duties and immigration controls.
• Duty to Respect Local Laws: While diplomats enjoy immunity from the host country’s laws, they must respect and adhere to the laws and regulations of the host country. This includes respecting traffic rules and local customs.
• Termination of Diplomatic Immunity: Diplomatic immunity can be waived by the sending state, and it may also be terminated under certain conditions, such as if a diplomat engages in criminal activities that are deemed particularly serious by the host country.
• Consular Immunity: Consular officers, who handle issues related to visas, passports, and services for their country’s citizens in the host country, also enjoy a level of immunity. However, this immunity is typically not as extensive as that granted to diplomatic personnel.

Conclusion 

The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations has been ratified by a large majority of countries and is recognized as customary international law. It has greatly contributed to the orderly conduct of international diplomacy, the prevention of diplomatic disputes, and the promotion of peaceful relations between states.
The Vienna Conventions on Diplomatic and Consular Relations provide a comprehensive framework for diplomatic conduct, but diplomacy also relies on state practice, customary international law, and evolving global norms.

Rafah Crossing

Context

Recently, the area of the Rafah Border Crossing has been reportedly hit by a military strike.

Rafah Crossing Overview

• Rafah Crossing is located at the southern end of the Gaza Strip, a narrow territory housing approximately 2.3 million people.
• It is situated between Israel, Egypt, and the Mediterranean Sea.
• This crossing is under the control of Egypt.
• Rafah Crossing represents a crucial and often the sole humanitarian route for aid to enter the Gaza Strip from Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula.
• There are only two other border crossings in the Gaza region: Erez, a border crossing with Israel in northern Gaza, and Kerem Shalom, a commercial crossing connecting Israel and southern Gaza.

Key Facts about Sinai Peninsula

• The Sinai Peninsula is a triangular landmass in northeastern Egypt.
• It serves as a land bridge, connecting the continents of Asia and Africa.
• Boundaries:
  • To the north, it is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea.
  • To the east, it shares borders with Israel and the Gaza Strip.
  • The Sinai’s western boundary is defined by the Suez Canal, separating it from the African part of Egypt.
  • The Gulf of Suez lies to the southwest.
  • To the immediate south, it is bordered by the Red Sea.
  • The Gulf of Aqaba defines its southeastern boundary.
  • Egypt has maritime boundaries in the Sinai region, sharing them with Jordan and Saudi Arabia.

China’s Aid to Sri Lanka

Why in News?

More than a year after Sri Lanka plunged into an economic crisis, it has reached an agreement with the Export-Import (EXIM) Bank of China to cover about USD 4.2 billion of its outstanding debt.

• For India, China’s assistance to Sri Lanka will be seen as another means through which it is investing in deepening its ties with the island nation.

What is the Context of China’s Present Aid to Sri Lanka?

• Sri Lanka's Economic Crisis Causes and Response:
  • In April 2022, Sri Lanka declared its inability to repay its debt of over USD 83 billion, with more than half owed to foreign creditors.
  • Factors contributing to the crisis include large tax cuts in 2019, the impact of the coronavirus pandemic on the tourism industry, and fuel shortages due to the war in Ukraine.
  • Sri Lanka sought assistance from China and India, where India extended USD 500 million credit line for fuel and a USD 1 billion credit line for importing essentials.
• Concerns and Challenges in Debt Negotiations:
  • Sri Lanka initiated negotiations with bondholders and key bilateral creditors, including China, Japan, and India, to meet IMF conditions.
  • Sri Lanka received a USD 2.9 billion IMF Extended Fund Facility, but had to secure financing assurances for debt sustainability from its creditors through debt restructuring.
  • For instance, Sri Lanka asked foreign investors for a 30% reduction in outstanding debt and hopes to reduce its overall debt by USD 16.9 billion.
  • The Paris Group attempted to bring China and India into negotiations as a whole, ensuring no nation receives preferential terms.
  • China has traditionally pursued bilateral negotiations with confidential terms, while India had concerns about joining a common platform that does not include China as it may have implications for military and strategic interests in the Indian Ocean Region.

How Strong are China-Sri Lanka Ties?

• Largest Creditor to Sri Lanka:
  • China is the largest bilateral creditor to the country.
  • Sri Lanka heavily relies on Chinese credit to address its foreign debt burden.
• Investment in Infrastructure Projects:
  • China has invested about USD 12 billion in Sri Lanka’s infrastructure projects between 2006-19.
• China’s Pursuit in the Indian Ocean:
  • China enjoys friendlier waters in South Asia and the Indian Ocean than it does in Southeast Asia and the Pacific.
  • China faces opposition from Taiwan, territorial disputes in the South China Sea and East Asia, and myriad frictions with the US and Australia.
• Shifting Interests of Smaller Nations:
  • Sri Lanka’s economic crisis may further push it to align its policies with China’s interests.
• India’s Concerns:
  • Opposition to SAGAR Initiative: The Chinese-proposed “Forum on the Development of Indian Ocean Island Countries” sounded in opposition to India’s SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) initiative.
  • Issues Emanating from Two Engines of Growth: China has formal control over Sri Lanka’s Hambantota port as a part of a 99-year lease.
  • Sri Lanka has decided to establish a Special Economic Zone around the Colombo port city and a new economic commission, to be funded by China.
  • Leasing of Hambantota and the Colombo Port City project makes it almost certain for the Chinese navy to have a permanent presence in the Indian Ocean which will be worrisome for India’s national security.
  • This Chinese strategy to encircle India is referred to as the Strings of Pearls Strategy.
  • Influencing India’s Neighbours: Other South Asian nations like Bangladesh, Nepal and the Maldives have also been turning to China to finance large-scale infrastructure projects.

How have Relations Between India and Sri Lanka Been?

• Historical Ties: India and Sri Lanka have a long history of cultural, religious, and trade ties dating back to ancient times.
  • There are strong cultural ties between the two countries, with many Sri Lankans tracing their heritage to India. Buddhism, which originated in India, is also an important religion in Sri Lanka.
• Financial Assistance from India: India provided approximately USD 4 billion worth of aid to Sri Lanka during an unprecedented economic crisis, which was crucial for the country to survive the crisis.
  • India became the first country to hand over its letter of support for financing and debt restructuring of Sri Lanka.
• Regional and Indian Ocean Context: Both countries are significant Indian Ocean countries, and their relations are viewed in the broader regional and Indian Ocean context.
• Economic and Technology Cooperation Agreement (ETCA): Both countries are exploring the possibility of an ETCA to integrate their economies and foster development.
• Agreement on a Multi-Project Petroleum Pipeline: Both India and Sri Lanka have agreed to establish a multi-product petroleum pipeline from the southern part of India to Sri Lanka.
• Adoption of India's UPI: Sri Lanka has now adopted India's UPI service, which is a significant step towards enhancing fintech connectivity between the two countries.
  • The use of rupee for trade settlement is further helping Sri Lanka’s economy. These are concrete steps to help Sri Lanka’s economic recovery and growth.
• Economic Ties: India is Sri Lanka’s third largest export destination, after the US and UK. More than 60% of Sri Lanka’s exports enjoy the benefits of the India-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement. India is also a major investor in Sri Lanka.
• Defence: India and Sri Lanka conduct joint military (Mitra Shakti) and Naval exercise (SLINEX).
• Participation in Groupings: Sri Lanka is also a member of groupings like BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation) and SAARC in which India plays a leading role.