Iranian and Macedonian Invasions and Their Impact | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Iranian Invasion of India (550 – 515 B.C)

Gandhara Region

• In the time of Darius I (522-486 B.C.), the Persians made significant advancements in India.
• Darius invaded India and took control of territories in the North-Western Frontier Province, Sind, and Punjab in 516 B.C. These areas remained part of the Iranian Empire until Alexander the Great's invasion of India.
• The Bahistan Inscription refers to Gandhara as a province of Darius's empire, which he inherited from Cyrus.
• This is further supported by the Susa Palace Inscription of Darius, which states that teak was brought from Gandhara for the construction of the Emperor's palace. (Gandhara corresponds to modern Peshawar and Rawalpindi in Pakistan).

The Statement of Herodotus

• According to Herodotus, Gandhara was the twentieth satrapy of Darius's empire, paying a tribute of 360 talents of gold dust.
• This gold was likely collected from the upper Indus riverbeds and the gold mines of Dardistan.
• Gandhara was considered the most fertile and populous province of the Achaemenian Empire.
• Herodotus also recorded that Darius sent a naval expedition, possibly around 517 B.C., to explore the Indus basin.

The Extent of Darius's Empire in India

• The Persian Empire in India under Darius was not limited to Gandhara alone but extended further towards the Indus River.
• Under Darius, the Persian Empire in India reached its farthest limits.
• The Indian dominion of Darius included territories inherited from his predecessors and those he conquered in India.
• The regions of West Punjab and the Lower Indus valley were under Persian rule.

The Downfall of the Persian Empire

• The defeat of Xerxes in Greece marked the beginning of the decline of Persian power in India.
• Despite this decline, Achaemenid rule over India continued until 330 B.C.
• In that year, Darius III, the last Achaemenid ruler, summoned Indian troops to fight against Alexander the Great.
• The Persian hold over India was ultimately lost with the fall of Persian power due to Alexander's invasion.

Iranian Influence on India

Iranian contacts with India lasted for about two centuries (516 to 326 B.C). These contacts had many important results which are as under:

(a) Political Impact:

• The Persian invasion and their control over the north-western regions of India did not significantly alter Indian politics. Instead, it highlighted the vulnerability of Indian defenses in that area, setting the stage for Alexander's conquest.
• The Persians were succeeded by the Greeks, Sakas, Kushans, and Huns. Despite this, the administrative system introduced by the Persians, known as the satrapa system, served as a model for later dynasties like the Sakas and Kushanas.
• India learned the importance of a strong and united empire to fend off foreign invasions. This period marked the first time that the small, fragmented, and often warring states of India understood the necessity of uniting against a common enemy.

(b) Encouragement to Trade:

• Although the Persian invasion did not have a profound political impact on India, the ongoing contact between Indians and Persians, even after the fall of the Achaemenian Empire, fostered trade relations between the two regions.
• The Persian rulers actively promoted geographical exploration and facilitated trade and commerce. Scylax's exploration of the Indus and Arabian Sea opened new trade routes.
• When western and north-western India became part of the Persian Empire, extending to Asia Minor in the west, Indian trade received a significant boost. Indian products like ivory and teak became popular in Persian markets, with Darius using them for his palace.
• Indian traders and merchants expanded their reach within the vast Persian Empire, while Persian goods began to flow more freely into India.

(c) Settlement of Foreigners on Indian Soil:

• A considerable number of foreigners, including Greeks, Persians, and Turks, settled in north-western India. Over time, they assimilated into Indian society.

(d) Impact on Art and Architecture:

• According to Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador at Chandragupta Maurya's court, the Mauryan ruler adopted certain Persian ceremonies and rituals. There was also a degree of influence of Persian art on Mauryan art.
• Evidence of Persian influence can be seen in Mauryan sculptures and Ashokan pillars. The high polish of Mauryan pillars reflects Persian masonry techniques, which emphasized this characteristic.
• Ashokan pillars were inspired by Persian pillars, and Ashoka adopted the Iranian custom of inscribing ideals on stone pillars.
• The architecture during Ashoka's period was largely shaped by Persian architectural styles.

(e) Kharoshthi Script:

• The Aramaic writing introduced by the Persians in north-western India after their conquest gradually evolved into the Kharoshti script, which was written from right to left.
• All Ashokan rock inscriptions in north-west India were engraved in the Kharoshti script. The practice of inscribing ethical exhortations on rocks as royal proclamations may have been borrowed from Persia.
• Certain similarities have been found between Achaemenid inscriptions and those of Ashoka, particularly in the style and structure of the opening sentence.

(f) Interchange of Indo-Persian Culture:

• Indian scholars and philosophers traveled to Persia to exchange ideas freely with the intellectuals of that country. This interaction led to significant changes in the perspectives of the people and fostered closer ties between the two cultures.
• There was a fusion of Iranian/Persian elements in Mauryan art, and Buddhism had an impact on the Zoroastrian religion of ancient Persia.
• Even before Alexander's invasion, the Persians acted as intermediaries between Indian and Greek cultures. Greek philosophers were exposed to Indian philosophy well before Alexander's time.

(g) Influence on Coinage:

• Persian silver coins were circulated in India, influencing Indian coinage.
• Persian coins were known for their refined minting and elegant appearance, leading Indian rulers to adopt similar techniques in minting coins based on the Persian model.

Comparison of Maurya Columns and Achaemenian Pillars

Similarities

• Both were constructed using stones.
• Both utilized polished stones.
• Both featured certain common sculpture motifs, such as the lotus.
• Ashokan pillar edicts bear some resemblance to the pillar edicts of Darius, the king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire.
• Carved animals are present in both cases.
• It is suggested that Ashoka derived the idea of inscribing proclamations on pillars from the Achaemenids.

Differences

• Function and Conception: There are distinctions between the two in terms of their functions, conceptions, style, design, and form. The stone columns of the Mauryan Pillared Hall lacked capitals, while the columns of the pillared halls in Persepolis featured elaborate capitals.
• Base and Shaft Design: Achaemenian (Persian) columns rested on bases shaped like a bell (inverted lotus) or on plain rectangular or circular blocks. In contrast, the independent Mauryan columns had no bases at all. The bell-shaped base used in Persian columns served as a capital on top of the shaft in Mauryan columns, creating a different aesthetic effect.
• Lotus Ornamentation: The shape and ornamentation of the Mauryan lotus differed from the Persian ones. The bulge characteristic of the Mauryan lotus was absent in the Persian versions.
• Shaft Design: The Achaemenian shaft was fluted in all cases except one, while Mauryan columns were smooth. Achaemenian shafts were built of separate stone segments stacked on top of each other, a technique associated with masonry. In contrast, the shaft of the Mauryan pillar was monolithic, reflecting the work of a skilled wood-carver or carpenter.
• Construction Technique: The construction technique of the Mauryan pillars resembled that of wood-carvers or carpenters, while Achaemenian pillars exhibited the work of masons.
• Architectural Context: Achaemenid pillars were typically part of larger architectural schemes, composed of numerous complex and intricate components. In contrast, Ashokan columns were designed to stand as independent, freestanding monuments, characterized by simpler forms, greater harmony in conception and execution, and a sense of stability, dignity, and strength.
• Capital Decoration: The capitals of Persian columns were adorned with clusters of stylized palm leaves and featured two semi-bulls, lions, or unicorns seated back to back, or an upright or inverted cup with double volutes on top. In contrast, the Mauryan type of abacus (the platform above the bell) and independently carved animal motifs on top of the abacus were absent in the Achaemenian context.
• Message and Themes: While Darius’s pillars celebrated military victories and the military might of the Achaemenid monarch, Ashoka’s pillar edicts conveyed a quasi-benevolent message of a caring emperor.

Macedonian Invasion of India

Introduction

• Alexander the Great, born in 356 B.C. in Macedonia (part of present-day Greece), was the son of King Philip II. After his father’s death, Alexander became king at the young age of 20.
• In a short span of time, he expanded his empire by conquering Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, and Persia.

Alexander's Invasion of India

• Alexander’s invasion of India in 326 B.C. is a significant event in ancient Indian history. However, it hardly made a lasting impact on the Indian psyche.
• This is evident because ancient Indian literature does not mention Alexander’s invasion. Most of what we know about this event comes from Greek sources.
• Greek accounts of Alexander’s invasion have been supported by archaeological evidence, particularly coins (numismatic evidence).

India's Conditions Before the Invasion

Political Condition

• At the time of Alexander's invasion, India was not unified under a single powerful empire. Instead, it was divided into numerous small republics and monarchical states that were frequently at war with each other.
• The strong Magadhan Empire, located across the Beas River, was too preoccupied with its own affairs to intervene in the political struggles of the western states.

Political Condition in the Trans-Indus States

• Ambhi’s Kingdom: The kingdom of Taxila, located between the Indus and Jhelum Rivers, was ruled by Ambhi. He was a rival of Porus, the ruler of the neighboring territory.
• Porus’s Kingdom: Porus ruled the area between the Jhelum and Chenab Rivers. He was known for his strong army, which put up a fierce resistance against Alexander.
• Younger Porus and the Glausai Tribe: The region between the Ravi and Chenab Rivers was governed by Younger Porus, a relative of Porus, and the Glausai Tribe, which had its own distinct territories.
• The Territory between the Ravi and Beas Rivers: This area was ruled by various independent tribes.

The Magadhan Empire

• To the east of the Beas River lay the powerful Magadhan Empire, ruled by the Nandas. The Nandas had a large and formidable army, and their capital was at Patliputra (modern-day Patna).

Tribal Republics of Southern Punjab

• In southern Punjab, along Alexander's route back to Greece, there were warlike tribal republics such as the Sivi, Kshudrakas, and Malla. These tribes made Alexander’s retreat difficult.

The Indus Valley Tribes

• Numerous independent tribes inhabited the Indus Valley, further contributing to the region's diverse political landscape.

Social Condition

• The society was characterized by a simple lifestyle, with low occurrences of theft. However, practices like Sati (the burning of widows), polygamy, and slavery were common.
• Greek accounts suggest that some families were so impoverished that they had to sell their daughters, indicating a decline in moral values.
• On a positive note, Indians had made significant advancements in art, architecture, literature, and education during this period.

Economic Condition

• The economy was primarily based on agriculture, trade, and various crafts. Trade was well-developed, with Indian traders traveling to distant lands to sell woolen blankets, hides, horses, elephants, and precious stones.
• Trade was prosperous and regulated by the state, with coins used as a medium of exchange.

Religious Condition

• Worship of images was well-established, and natural elements like rivers (especially the Ganga) and trees were also venerated. Sacred trees were protected and not harmed.
• Brahmanism was the dominant religious practice, although Buddhism and Jainism were also becoming more popular. The Brahmanas (Hindu priests) were highly respected, even by the rulers.

Why Did Alexander Invade India?

• Completion of Conquest: Alexander had already conquered most of the Persian Empire, leaving only the Indian satrapy. The ease with which he defeated Persia and the wealth he gained from it fueled his desire to invade India.
• Wealth of India: The Indian satrapy paid a hefty tribute of 360 talents of gold dust to the Persian emperor. This made Alexander curious about the wealth and prosperity of India.
• Curiosity and Adventure: Indian soldiers who fought under Xerxes in Greece had sparked great interest among the Greeks about India. This curiosity, coupled with a love for adventure and conquest, motivated Alexander to march into India.
• Internal Rivalry: An embassy from a local king sought Alexander's help against the neighboring king Porus. This made Alexander aware of the internal rivalries among Indian rulers.
• Heroic Ambitions: Alexander aimed to surpass the heroism of mythical figures like Heracles.
• Geographical Curiosity: Greek geographers were puzzled about the extent of the Ocean. One of Alexander's objectives in India was to help clarify this geographical mystery.

Conquest of India by Alexander

Alexander the Great's Indian campaign began in 326 BC, following his conquest of the Persian Empire. The Macedonian king, after defeating Persia, set his sights on the northwestern Indian subcontinent, present-day Pakistan.

• Crossing into India: In the spring of 327 BC, Alexander decided to cross the Hindukush mountain range and advance into India, leading a large army. The Macedonian troops, with their shining armor and gleaming weapons, struck fear into the local tribes, who offered little resistance until they reached the Indus River.
• First Opposition: The first to resist Alexander was the King of Pushkalavati, who bravely defended his capital for several days but ultimately fell in battle. The Macedonians captured the fort and, overcoming resistance, reached the Indus River.
• Taxila: In 326 BC, after crossing the Indus, Alexander encountered Ambhi, the king of Taxila. Ambhi entered into a treaty with Alexander, welcoming him into the city. This surrender opened the gates of Punjab to the Macedonians, possibly motivated by Ambhi's desire for revenge against his neighbor, King Porus.
• Battle with Porus (Battle of Hydaspes): King Porus, ruler of the Paurava kingdom between the Jhelum and Chenab rivers, was not willing to surrender. The historic battle between Porus and Alexander took place on the banks of the Jhelum River in 326 BC. Despite his bravery and sustaining multiple wounds, Porus's army was ultimately defeated. Impressed by Porus's courage, Alexander appointed him as a satrap, granting him not only his own kingdom but also additional territories.
• March towards the Beas River: Following the victory at the Battle of Hydaspes, Alexander's army marched swiftly towards the Beas River. It was during this march that Alexander learned about the formidable Nanda Empire to the east of Porus's kingdom.
• Return from the Beas River: Upon reaching the Beas River, Alexander's army refused to proceed further despite his appeals. Using inaccurate Greek maps, Alexander believed that the known world ended just 1,000 km away at the edge of India. Despite his efforts to persuade his troops to continue, they remained unwilling, leading him to agree to turn back.
• Conquest of Local Tribes: During his return journey towards the Lower Indus, Alexander faced fierce opposition from local republican tribes, suffering heavy losses. Despite this, he managed to conquer the region, including the Malli clans in present-day Multan, and received submissions from other tribes.
• Conquest of Sind: The rulers of Sind fiercely resisted the Macedonian army but were ultimately defeated, bringing the region under Alexander's control.
• Return to Persia: The Macedonian army returned to Persia in 324 BC, with Alexander leaving behind some of his generals to govern the conquered territories. While encamped in Babylon, Alexander succumbed to a fatal illness in 323 BC.

In the spring of 327 BC, Alexander decided to cross the Hindukush mountain range and advance into India, leading a large army. The Macedonian troops, with their shining armor and gleaming weapons, struck fear into the local tribes, who offered little resistance until they reached the Indus River.

Consequences of Alexander's Invasion

Although Alexander failed to establish Greek civilization in India and his invasion did not produce any direct, lasting consequences, it was not a total failure. It had several indirect consequences:

Political Impact: Alexander's invasion taught a political lesson and had a political outcome. The lesson was that the divided small kingdoms, republics, and tribal units in North-West India suffered at the hands of foreign invaders. Unity became crucial.

• The political outcome was significant. Alexander weakened many existing states and eliminated the independent existence of some. After his departure, the process of building a powerful Indian empire began, with the North-West states easily conquered and incorporated into the empire.
• In fact, Alexander made Chandragupta Maurya's task easier, paving the way for his imperial power in the areas invaded by the Greeks. The political myth created by Greek writers about the superiority of the Western army over the Indian was debunked when Chandragupta Maurya not only expelled the Greeks from India but also defeated Seleucus Nikator, a powerful Greek ruler after Alexander.
• Politically, India emerged as a mighty power in Asia soon after Alexander's invasion.

Commercial Impact: Alexander's invasion opened land routes between the Greek world in the West and the Indian sub-continent. It is said that he established as many as five different lines of communication between India and the West during his campaigns.

• Of these, four routes were land-based, and one was by sea. His voyages and campaigns expanded the geographical horizons of both western and eastern peoples. After the destruction of the Persian Empire, over which the Greeks began to rule, the lines of contact between India and Western Asia, and through that with Europe, became more effective and direct. The geographical separation between the West and East was significantly reduced due to Alexander's invasion.
• Several Indian traders, artisans, and religious scholars traveled to other countries, while people from other countries came to India, leading to rapid development of contacts between India and Europe.
• The land routes to the West mainly ran through Kabul, the Mulla Pass of Baluchistan, and Gedrosia. In his conquered territories, Alexander founded cities, military posts, and Greek settlements, which eventually became centers of trade over time.

Help in Building Indian Chronology for Subsequent Events: Alexander's invasion aided in the construction of Indian history. He invaded India in 326 BC, a date that greatly assisted in determining Indian chronology.

• Indian texts, especially the Puranas, have often neglected to record events in chronological order. Greek writers like Megasthenes provided valuable descriptions of contemporary Indian society, which, along with archaeological evidence, especially numismatic evidence, has been helpful in this regard.

Foundation of Greek States and Cultural Impact: After Alexander's departure, the Greek generals he left in India established their independent states on the North Western Frontiers of India. This contact between Indians and Greeks was mutually beneficial.

• At the time of the Greek invasion, India was rich in religion and philosophy, while the Greeks, pioneers of Western civilization, had their own rich philosophical traditions. The historians, scholars, and writers who accompanied Alexander closely observed Indian philosophical systems and recorded them in their writings.
• Alexander himself was curious about the difficult systems of Indian ascetics and philosophers. The descriptions left by Greek writers sparked curiosity in advanced Greek minds of that time and later periods. The Hindu and Buddhist religious faiths and philosophies influenced Greek philosophy after Alexander's time.
• On their part, the Indians were impressed by Greek coinage, with King Saubhuti striking coins in imitation of Greek coins. They also learned about Greek astronomy and later appreciated Hellenistic art. This influence culminated in the Gandhara School of Art, where Buddha images displayed a remarkable blend of Greek and Indian artistic styles.
• Although this art reached its peak during the time of Emperor Kanishka, who brought sculptors from Greek settlements in Bactria, the roots can be traced back to Alexander's era.

Causes Responsible for Indian Defeat by Alexander: The main cause of defeat was the lack of unity among Indian rulers. Their mutual jealousy made them selfish and unable to pool resources during a national crisis.

• Alexander was undoubtedly a great general, possibly the greatest in history. The Greek army was more disciplined and organized compared to the unwieldy and undisciplined Indian forces.
• Greek soldiers were familiar with the latest tactics, while the Indian elephants, instead of being an asset, became a liability. When wounded by Greek archers, they trampled their own soldiers in a frenzy.
• Nature also favored the Macedonians. Indian archers could not effectively use their bows due to rain and storms, and chariots got stuck in the muddy battlefield, which was detrimental to the Indian side.
• Indian forces were caught off guard when Alexander launched a sudden attack, as they believed the flooded Jhelum was impassable.

Early Greek and Latin Historians and Geographers Who Provided Information About India

The name "India" first appears in Greek literature in the 5th century B.C. in the works of Hekataios and Herodotos. The term is derived from the Indus River, with "sindhu" in Sanskrit meaning "river." Initially, in Greek and Persian, "India" referred specifically to the Indus region, which was part of the Persian Empire. However, Herodotos used the term to describe the entire country, a usage that became common in classical Greek.

Herodotos

• Herodotos, a Greek historian known as the "Father of History," was the first to systematically collect and critically arrange historical materials.
• His work, "The Histories," contains some of the oldest records of Indian civilization from an outsider's perspective.
• Although he never visited India, Herodotos gathered information from various sources and noted the diversity of the Indian people.
• He described a region in India where large ants, the size of foxes, dug up gold dust, a claim later disputed by the historian Pliny.
• Herodotos aimed for serious inquiry but also included entertaining tales, ensuring to verify them through investigation.
• His geographical understanding was flawed; for instance, he mistakenly believed the Indus River flowed eastward and that India was the easternmost inhabited part of Asia.

Ktesias

• Ktesias, the last Greek writer on India before Alexander the Great, served as a personal physician to the Persian king for eight years.
• During his time at the Achaemenid court, he gained unique insights into the Persian Empire and its interactions with India.
• Upon returning to Greece, Ktesias wrote "Persika," a history of the Near East, and "Indika," a smaller work on India, both of which have since been lost.

Megasthenes’ Indica

Megasthenes’ work on India, known as "Indica," has been discussed in a separate chapter.

Ptolemy I Soter

• Ptolemy, a Macedonian general under Alexander the Great, wrote a history of Alexander’s campaigns, now lost but considered objective and honest.
• Arrian, a later historian, heavily relied on Ptolemy’s work for his own account of Alexander.

Ptolemy

• Ptolemy was a Greco-Egyptian writer known for his contributions in mathematics, astronomy, geography, and astrology.
• His main work, "The Geography," was the Roman Empire's standard geographical reference in the 2nd century.
• Ptolemy based much of his work on earlier geographers, contributing to the knowledge of India and its geography.

Arrian

• Arrian was a Greek historian and military commander known for his work "Anabasis of Alexander," considered one of the best sources on Alexander the Great’s campaigns.
• He used mostly lost sources, including a biography of Alexander by Ptolemy, one of Alexander’s generals.
• Arrian’s "Indica," describing Alexander’s time in India, draws on Nearchus’s account of his voyage after Alexander’s conquests.
• "Indica" begins with a description of India’s geography, focusing on the Indus and Ganges rivers.
• Arrian’s work often exaggerates Alexander’s achievements, influenced by his sources.

Diodorus Siculus

• Diodorus Siculus was a Greek historian who discussed Alexander’s invasion of India, including his battles with local rulers like Porus, Nanda, and the Gangaridai states.

Strabo (64 BC – AD 24)

• Strabo was a Greek geographer and historian who, despite not visiting India, traveled extensively to understand various regions.
• His work "Geographica" provides a descriptive history of different peoples and places known in his time, including accounts of India based on Greek records of Alexander’s campaigns.
• Strabo’s writings are valuable for understanding the ancient world, especially when corroborated by other sources.

Plutarch (AD 46 – AD 120)

• Plutarch was a Greek historian and biographer known for his work "Parallel Lives," where he compared the lives of famous Greeks and Romans.
• In his "Life of Alexander," Plutarch provides unique anecdotes and descriptions of Alexander the Great, emphasizing his drive for excellence and glory.
• Plutarch’s focus was on the influence of character on individuals’ destinies, making him one of the earliest moral philosophers.

Quintus Curtius

• Quintus Curtius was a Roman historian, likely from the 1st century, known for his work "Histories of Alexander the Great."
• He did not usually identify his sources, but he mentioned Cleitarchus and Ptolemy, who were eyewitnesses of Alexander’s story.

Pliny the Elder (AD 23 – AD 79)

• Pliny the Elder was a Roman author and naturalist known for his encyclopedic work "Naturalis Historia," covering various topics including geography, ethnography, and anthropology.
• In "Natural History," Pliny described a voyage from Alexandria to South India, detailing Rome’s significant trade with India and the drain of gold for this trade.
• He lamented the outflow of precious metals to India, highlighting the Kushan Empire’s recycling of this gold for their own coinage.

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea or Periplus of the Red Sea

• The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a Greco-Roman text written in Greek, outlines navigation and trade opportunities from Roman Egyptian ports along the Red Sea coast, extending to Northeast Africa and the Indian subcontinent.
• Dating back to the mid-1st century, the author remains unknown.
• The term "Erythraean Sea," meaning "Red Sea," to the Greeks encompassed the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf.
• The text places Gangaridai on the Bay of Bengal, near the ancient port city of Kalinga (modern-day Orissa), highlighting the region's trade in goods like spikenard, pearls, muslin, and gold.
• Muziris, a lost port city near present-day Cochin in the Chera kingdom, and the Early Pandyan Kingdom are depicted as major trade hubs for spices, metalwork, and semiprecious stones, linking South India with the Roman Empire.
• The text also references an annual fair in present-day Northeast India, near the border with China, and extensively describes trade with the Indian harbor of Barygaza.
• Nahapana, a ruler of the Indo-Scythian Western Satraps, is noted in connection with Barygaza, a significant center of Roman trade under the Western Satraps.
• The Periplus outlines various goods exchanged, including those sourced from Ujjain, the capital of the Western Satraps.
• It inaccurately attributes numerous Greek buildings and fortifications in Barigaza to Alexander the Great, who never ventured this far south.
• The Periplus mentions the Greek city of Alexandria on the Jhelum River and the circulation of Indo-Greek coinage in the region, featuring inscriptions in Greek letters from the reigns of those after Alexander and Menander.

Pliny’s Statement on Rome's Gold Drain by India (1st Century CE)

• In the late pre-Christian era, South Indian trade in spices like ginger, turmeric, and pepper gained prominence, with the Greeks and Romans engaging in extensive trade with South India.
• During the first three centuries of the Christian era, trade between the Roman Empire and the East flourished significantly by land and sea due to several factors:
• The Roman conquest of Egypt in the mid-1st century BCE broke the Arab monopoly on spice trade, leading to increased Roman involvement.
• In 45 CE, Hippalus's discovery of the monsoon winds across the Indian Ocean facilitated direct oceanic voyages to South India, replacing coastal routes.
• South Indian spices, particularly ginger, turmeric, pepper, and luxury goods, became highly sought after in the Western world, including Rome. Pliny noted the widespread use of eastern aromatics in Roman society.
• Roman women were particularly fond of Indian pearls and muslin, while Chinese silk, for which India acted as an intermediary, was in high demand.
• Dioscorides (40-90 CE), a Greek physician and contemporary of Pliny, mentioned spices like cardamom, ginger, turmeric, and pepper for their medicinal properties, further boosting demand for Indian spices.
• Conversely, Roman products were less appealing in the East. Roman merchants primarily exported glass and wine, with the bulk of exchanges settled in precious metals like gold and silver.
• Ancient authors, including Pliny the Elder, believed this trade imbalance led to a drain of gold from Rome to India. Pliny lamented the outflow of Roman gold in exchange for luxuries and spices. He provided some figures in his work, Natural History:
• Pliny referred to the sea trade between Egypt and India, stating that India drained off no less than 50 million sesterces annually, sending back goods sold at 100 times their original value.
• He also mentioned that women and luxury trade with India, China, and the Arabian Peninsula cost not less than 100 million sesterces per year, possibly included in the estimate for India.
• The accuracy of these figures is uncertain. Pliny's passages may be alarmist and exaggerated, and neither passage explicitly mentions gold or silver, using sesterces instead.

Justifications Supporting Pliny’s Claim

• Pliny’s concerns about the cost of luxury trade with the East, as expressed in his Natural History, cannot be dismissed. His work is a significant exploration of humanity's relationship with the physical environment and reflects the importance of luxury trade in Rome.
• The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea suggests that Roman ships sailing to southern India primarily carried large amounts of money, supported by the discovery of imperial coin hoards in the region.
• Pepper, both black and white, was imported in large quantities, valued by the Romans as highly as gold and silver. This is evident from the name yavana Priya (dear to the Romans) given to it by Indian Sanskrit writers. In Rome, special storehouses existed for storing thousands of pounds of pepper.
• At the Roman Customs House in Alexandria, imported spices were scrutinized and taxed. When Constantinople became the capital of the Roman Empire in 330 CE, it evolved into a center for trade in oriental spices.
• The drain of bullion resources from the Roman Empire due to eastern trade is evidenced by the stress on the Roman currency system caused by bullion scarcity. At one point, Rome banned trade in silk, cutlery, and other goods imported from the East.
• Inscriptions from western India mentioning foreign perfume merchants (yavanagandhika) suggest the existence of large-scale spice trade.
• Excavations have uncovered remains of a Roman trading station and numerous mini-fresh Roman coins from the early centuries of the Christian era. Roman coins were buried in various places across Tamil India, from Malabar to the East Coast. The mention of a Temple of Augustus at Muziris indicates the presence of Roman traders in South India.
• Ancient Indian texts emphasize that the basis of foreign trade with the West was profit-making. Although reliable evidence on the price of silk in the Roman Empire is lacking, one ancient source suggests it was worth its weight in gold.
• The introduction of gold coinage on a significant scale by Vima Kadphises, a Kushana ruler in the 1st century CE, indicates that India had a favorable balance of trade with the Roman world, including overland trade.

Nature and Impact of India's Contact with Western Asia and the Mediterranean World

Nature of India's Contact with Western Asia and the Mediterranean World

• Diplomatic Relations: Instances of Greek ambassadors, such as Megasthenes at Chandragupta’s court and Syrian and Egyptian ambassadors during Bindusara’s rule, highlight diplomatic ties.
• Cordial Relationship: The anecdote of Bindusara requesting Antiochus for sweet wine, dried figs, and a sophist suggests amicable relations.
• Trade Relationship: Trade flourished, evidenced by Greek and Persian coins and accounts from figures like Megasthenes.
• Dhamma-vijaya: Ashoka’s Dhamma missions and claims of Dhamma-vijaya in various dominions reflect the spread of his ideology.
• Matrimonial Relationship: Roman historian Appian’s account of Seleucus marrying into Chandragupta’s family, although not entirely reliable, indicates connections.

Persian Impacts

• Territorial Annexation: Cyrus and Darius annexed parts of Punjab and Sindh, integrating Indian subjects into the Achaemenid army.
• Trade and Commerce: Flourishing trade between Persia and India, evidenced by Persian coins found in Punjab.
• Administrative Influence: Persian titles like Satrapa influenced Indian provincial governance.
• Cultural Influence: Kharosthi usage in inscriptions, Ashokan edicts, and Mauryan art showed Persian impact.
• Ceremonial Practices: Chandragupta’s ceremonial practices, like hair baths, reflected Persian customs.

Greek Impacts

• Territorial Control: North-west India, initially conquered by Alexander, later came under Seleucus, paving the way for Mauryan unification.
• Trade Route Discovery: Sea and land routes between India and Europe were established, boosting trade.
• Coinage Artistry: Greek influence on the art of making well-designed gold and silver coins.
• Astrological Influence: Greek impact on Indian astrology.
• Soci-Economic Insights: Greek accounts provided insights into Indian crafts, trade, and prosperity.
• Philosophical Exchange: Indian philosophical ideas reached the Western world.
• Chronological Framework: Greek accounts helped frame ancient Indian history, such as the date of Alexander’s victory in 326 BCE.