Land Revenue System under Akbar | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

The land revenue system during Akbar's era was a continuation of earlier developments, rooted even before the Delhi Sultanate.

• Akbar's introduction of the dahsala or Ten-Year system in 1579 was an evolution from Sher Shah's earlier system of measurement (zabt).
• During Bairam Khan's regency, a special assessment method called jama-i-Rakami was used, leading to inflated assessments and discontent among the nobility.
• After 1562, when Akbar took full control, he attempted to reform the system. Initially,Asaf Khan was appointed as wazir but was ineffective. Later,Aitmad Khan as Diwan-i-Khalisa separated khalisa lands from jagir lands, including the most productive lands in the crownlands.
• In the early years,Sher Shah's crop-rate(ray) was maintained, but converted into a cash rate (dastur-ul-amal) using a single price-list, causing distress due to differing prices between the royal camp and the countryside.
• Mujjafar Khan was appointed as Diwan-i-Kul in 1564-65, with Todar Mal also involved.
• In 1567,Muzaffar Khan and Raja Todar Mal made significant changes by collecting land revenue data from Qanungos, focusing on cultivated and uncultivated land, produce, and land revenue statistics.
• Based on new data, the assessment called jama-i-raqmi was replaced with a new estimate for the empire, converting crop-rates into cash based on regional prices.
• The Hal-i-Hasil assessment initially used measurement (Zabt-i Harsal) but shifted to estimation (kankut), which had its drawbacks.
• The local qanungos, being zamindars, were not fully transparent, leading to inaccuracies in crop-rates and jama.
• The kankut system allowed for corruption, and delays occurred due to the need for court approval of regional price-lists.
• Overall, the system faced significant distress and challenges, as noted by Abul Fazl.

The Dahsala System 

In 1579, the Ain-i-Dahsal settlement was introduced in the Khalisa land (region from Lahore to Allahabad) after the abolition of the Karori system. This system was developed by Todarmal and Khwaja Shah Mansoor based on extensive experience and data regarding land productivity and local prices. The settlement involved grouping lands into assessment circles (dasturs) with similar produce and crop rates, and determining state demand based on average crop yields and prices over the past ten years.

Key Features of Ain-i-Dahsal Settlement:

• The state demand was based on a series of cash rates determined by the crop and area sown, rather than a single crop rate converted to cash.
• This system allowed the state to estimate its income shortly after crops were sown, while also benefiting peasants to some extent.
• However, the risk of cultivation largely fell on the peasants.
• The average prices for various crops were calculated based on fresh productivity and local price information from the past ten years.
• For cash-crops with significant price fluctuations, a good season was used as the basis for revenue demand.

Land Classification:

• Polaj: Lands continually under cultivation.
• Parati: Lands fallow for a year, charged full rates upon cultivation.
• Chachar: Lands fallow for three to four years, with progressive rates, full rate charged in the third year.
• Banjar: Cultivable waste-land, full rates charged only in the fifth year.

State Share:

• Generally, one-third of the average produce was the state share.
• In some areas like Multan and Rajasthan, one-fourth was charged.
• In Kashmir, where saffron was cultivated, the state share was half.

Measurement and Record-Keeping:

• Initially, the Sikandari Gaj (32 digit) was used for measurement, later replaced by the Ilahi Gaj (41 digit).
• Maintenance of Siyahi Zabita (Record of measurement) was essential.

Basic Unit:

• The basic unit of the land revenue system was the Bigha.

Distinction Between State Demand and Peasant's Obligation:

• The state demand should not be confused with what the peasant had to actually pay.
• The land revenue demand did not include various other imposts like cess on cattle, trees, etc.
• Additionally, the shares demanded by zamindars and local officials, as well as village upkeep expenses, were not part of the land revenue demand.
• However, the land revenue demand was the most significant obligation for the peasant, often enforced under threat of severe actions like ejection and loss of life in case of failure to meet it.

Implementation of Ain-i-Dahsal:

• Background: Incomplete information and rapid empire expansion led to the need for a new revenue system.
• Karori Experiment (1574): Area from Lahore to Allahabad divided into units, each managed by officials called karoris.
• Khalisa Administration (1576): Direct crown administration introduced to gain firsthand agricultural experience.
• Abolition of Karori System: In 1579, the Ain-i-Dahsal settlement replaced the Karori system.
• Assessment Circles: Lands grouped into assessment circles (dasturs) based on productivity and local prices.
• State Demand: Fixed as one-tenth of the average crop yield and prices over the past ten years.
• Peasant Impact: Shifted cultivation risks to peasants, but provided some benefits.
• Measurement Tools: Use of new measuring rods (jaribs) for accurate land measurement.
• Revenue Share: State share typically one-third of average produce, varying by region.
• Record Keeping: Maintenance of detailed records of measurements and assessments.
• Land Classification: Types included polaj, parati, chachar, and banjar, each with specific cultivation criteria.
• Distinction in Demands: Land revenue demand was the heaviest burden, separate from other imposts and local official shares.

The Working of the dahsala System

Dahsala System and Land Revenue Assessment:

• The Dahsala system, which was based on measurement (or Zabt) and survey, was implemented in regions stretching from Lahore to Allahabad, as well as in Gujarat, Malwa, parts of Bihar, and Multan.
• Historian Irfan Habib believes it is unlikely that Zabt was applied to the entire land in any province.
• According to historical texts, the amalguzars(revenue officials) were allowed to accept any system of assessment preferred by the husbandman (farmer).
• Besides Zabt, the other prevalent systems of assessment included:
• Kankut or Appraisement
• Batai or Crop-sharing

Kankut system

In Kankut, land measurement and crop estimation were done methodically:

• The entire land was measured using either jarib or by pacing it out.
• Standing crops were estimated through visual inspection.
• If there was any uncertainty about the crop quality, samples were cut and classified into three categories:good,middling, and inferior.
• A balance was then struck based on these estimates to determine the overall crop quality.

Batai system

• Bhaoli: Crops are harvested and stacked, then divided by mutual agreement in the presence of the parties involved.
• Khet Batai: Fields are divided after the crops have been sown.
• Lang Batai: After the grain is cut, it is formed into heaps and then divided.

The Batai (crop sharing) system required a large number of intelligent inspectors to prevent deception.

Kharwar system

System of Produce Calculation in Kashmir:

• In Kashmir, a system similar to some regions in Central Asia was used to compute agricultural produce.
• Produce was measured based on ass loads(kharwar).
• After measurement, the produce was then divided among the relevant parties.

Nasaq system

Moreland's Concept of Group Assessment:

• Moreland referred to the practice of evaluating land revenue as group assessment.

Irfan Habib's Perspective on Estimation:

• Irfan Habib viewed this process as estimation based on previous assessments. Peasants were given estimates based on earlier assessments, whether through zabt,batai, or other methods.

Refusal and Reassessment:

• If peasants refused the estimate, a new assessment could be conducted. This approach helped avoid annual measurements.

Standard System of Nasaq and Batai:

• Over time, nasaq based on zabt became the standard system, although the option of batai remained, especially after crop failures.

Payment Options: Cash or Kind:

• The state preferred cash payments, but peasants had the option to pay in kind based on crop-sharing.
• When the state share was paid in kind, it was typically sold and converted into cash, as indicated by revenue papers from Rajasthan.

Emergency Cess: Dah-Seri:

• The Emergency cess, known as Dah-Seri, was implemented.

Provision of Nabood (Cropless Area):

• Nabood, or cropless area, was excluded from assessment but could not exceed 12.5% of the total sown area.

Inclusion of Jagir Land:

• In 1581-82, Jagir land was incorporated into the Ain-i-Dahsala settlement.

Initiation of Solar Era/Ilahi Era:

• In 1584, the Solar Era, also known as the Ilahi Era, was initiated.

Formation of Commission to Investigate Corruption:

• In 1585, a commission was established, including Todarmal and Fatullah Siraji, to investigate corrupt Amils.

Strict Enforcement of Land Revenue Collection:

• Collection of land revenue was enforced strictly, with non-payment considered a form of revolt.