Lineage and Descent | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Understanding Kinship and Descent Groups in Human Society

Kinship is a fundamental organizing principle in human societies, involving social relationships based on blood relations (consanguineal ties) and marital relations (affinal ties).

• Lineage: A consanguineal unilineal descent group where members can trace their ancestry back to a known common ancestor. Lineages are smaller and more specific than clans, which can include multiple lineages.
• Social Recognition of Biological Ties: The key aspect of kinship is the social acknowledgment of biological connections rather than the biological facts themselves. For instance, cases of illegitimate or adopted children illustrate how social recognition can override biological realities.
  In certain societies, such as the Trobriand Islanders of Melanesia, the biological role of a father may be unknown, and the husband of the wife is socially accepted as the father. Similarly, among the polyandrous Todas of Nilgiri, a child is considered the offspring of the brother who last performed a specific ceremony, regardless of his absence or death. These examples highlight the importance of social recognition over biological fact.
• Lineage and Descent: These concepts are crucial for understanding a society's social structure. Descent refers to an individual's family origins and the tracing of relationships through generations. When biological descent is socially recognized, it leads to the formation of descent groups such as lineages and clans.

Descent can be traced unilineally or otherwise:

• Unilineal Descent: Ancestry is determined exclusively through either the father's line (patrilineal) or the mother's line (matrilineal).

In summary, kinship is a vital aspect of human society, with social recognition of biological ties playing a crucial role in forming descent groups and shaping social structures.

Non-Unilineal Descent Groups

Cognatic descent groups, which do not follow unilineal descent, can be categorized into several types:

• Bilineal (Double Unilineal) Descent: In this system, both the father’s and mother’s lines are recognized, but not symmetrically. Resources are transmitted from the father’s lineage and the mother’s lineage, but the two lineages are kept separate. An example of this is the Yako people of Nigeria.
• Bilateral Descent: Both parental lines are recognized equally and symmetrically. This system is a predominant feature of modern industrial societies, where both parents transmit resources to their child. For instance, among the Kuku Yalanji people of Australia.
• Ambilineal Descent: Individuals have the choice to decide which parental line they want to identify with. An example of this is found in the Samoan Islands in the Pacific, as studied by anthropologist Margaret Mead.
• Parallel Descent: In this system, men transmit resources to their sons, and women transmit resources to their daughters. An example of parallel descent is found among the Saha tribe of Brazil, as studied by anthropologist James Safer.
• Crossing (Alternating) Descent: In this system, men transmit resources to their daughters, and women transmit resources to their sons. This type of descent is less common but can be found in certain cultures.

Key Points about Kinship and Descent Groups

• Kinship is a central organizing principle in human societies, involving social relationships based on blood and marital ties.
• Lineage is a consanguineal unilineal descent group where members can trace their ancestry back to a known common ancestor.
• Social recognition of biological ties is crucial in kinship, as seen in cases of illegitimate or adopted children.
• Descent groups, such as lineages and clans, are formed based on social recognition of biological descent.
• Descent can be traced unilineally (patrilineal or matrilineal) or non-unilineally (cognatic descent).
• Non-unilineal descent groups include bilineal, bilateral, ambilineal, parallel, and crossing descent, each with its own unique characteristics.

Significance of lineage and descent in kinship and family

Reproduction of society (incest taboo, endogamy, exogamy)
The importance of lineage and descent in kinship and family can be seen in the reproduction of society through aspects such as the incest taboo, endogamy, and exogamy. The incest taboo is a universal rule found in all human societies that prohibits sexual relationships between close blood relatives, such as parent-child and sibling relationships. Although the specific details of the incest taboo may vary across societies and religions, the general principle remains consistent. Some anthropologists argue that the incest taboo provides social benefits by encouraging group expansion and fostering alliances across kin boundaries, while others suggest that widespread incest could lead to biological degeneration through the transmission of inheritable diseases.

• In addition to the incest taboo, societies also have rules regarding marriage eligibility, which can be categorized as endogamy and exogamy. Endogamy refers to the practice of marrying within a specific cultural group, such as a caste, religion, or tribe. This practice is prevalent in the Indian caste system and among religious groups that discourage or prohibit interfaith marriages. On the other hand, exogamy requires individuals to marry outside of their own group, thus prohibiting marital relationships with certain individuals or groups. 
• Exogamous rules can be found in every society, although they may take different forms. For example, in China, individuals with the same surname are not allowed to marry, while in Hinduism, marriages within the same gotra or sapinda groups are prohibited.

In summary, lineage and descent play a significant role in kinship and family structures through the establishment of rules and norms, such as the incest taboo, endogamy, and exogamy. These practices help to maintain social order, promote group expansion, and create alliances between different kin groups.

1. Group membership: Kinship involves more than just the continuation of society and the passing on of cultural values and knowledge between generations, even though these aspects hold great significance. Additionally, kinship plays a crucial role in forming groups. For instance, through marriage, a mother is assigned a husband, and her children become his children as well, ultimately forming a unique group consisting of the father, mother, and their children, commonly referred to as a "family."
2. Political function: Kinship plays a significant role in politics and the administration of daily matters in many societies. For a successful political career, an individual often requires support from both blood relatives and in-laws. This is particularly true in stateless societies, where kinship groups, along with geographical location, form the foundation for political stability and the advancement of political interests.
3. Economic function: In numerous communities, family members often collaborate in economic ventures. For instance, among the Hindus in Mauritius, it is typical for groups of siblings and cousins to establish a joint business. While there may not be an explicit rule requiring family relationships to operate a business together, having kinship can offer practical benefits. Trust is generally higher among relatives, as they are connected through a network of strong moral obligations.

Social Stability and Social Control

• Within a kinship group, there are certain norms that dictate how individuals should behave towards one another based on their familial relationship. These kinship guidelines help to establish the roles and responsibilities between family members and maintain stability within the group. In essence, kinship serves as a framework for understanding and managing social interactions.
• For example, kinship norms outline the appropriate behavior between a father and daughter, brother and sister, son-in-law and mother-in-law, and other relationships within the family or clan. By providing these guidelines, kinship contributes to the overall harmony and cohesion of the social system.
• By adhering to these norms, individuals within the kinship group can work together and prevent the breakdown of the group. This cooperation can extend to the division of labor, where tasks and responsibilities can be organized based on kinship ties. In this way, kinship plays a crucial role in sustaining the social structure and ensuring the continued functioning of the group as a whole.

Kinship, Inheritance, and Succession: An Overview of Cultural Variation

• Kinship plays a crucial role in establishing and maintaining social groups, as well as transmitting status and property from one generation to the next. Descent and inheritance rules vary among societies, with some tracing lineage through both parents, while others follow either matrilineal or patrilineal systems. This article explores the diverse aspects of kinship, inheritance, and succession in different cultures.
• In most societies, a child has kinship relationships through both parents. Paternal or patrilateral kin are traced through the father, while maternal or matrilateral kin are traced through the mother. Lineal kin refers to direct ancestors and descendants, while collateral kin includes other descendants of one's lineal kin, such as parents' siblings and cousins. Primary, secondary, and tertiary kin are distinguished based on their closeness to an individual.
• Consanguinity can be defined by common descent from an ancestor, with all descendants of a common ancestor forming a stock. Cognates are individuals who share a common ancestor. Some societies trace descent through males (agnatic or patrilineal kin) or females (uterine or matrilineal kin) exclusively for certain purposes; these are called unilineal modes of tracing descent.
• Rules of inheritance often align with the reckoning of descent, but not always in a straightforward manner. In some societies, certain types of property pass from father to son, while others pass from mother to daughter. In India, for example, land and housing were traditionally inherited by sons, while movable property like cash and jewelry were given to daughters at the time of marriage.
• Before the Hindu Succession Act of 1956, two systems of inheritance existed among patrilineal Hindus in India. Under the Mitakshara school, a son had a vested interest in his father's ancestral property from birth, while the Dayabaga school allowed the father to have absolute ownership of his share. The Act established a uniform system of inheritance, treating male and female heirs equally in matters of inheritance and succession. However, daughters still do not have rights to coparcenary ancestral property by birth.

Conclusion

Kinship is a central organizing principle in human society, playing a crucial role in forming social groups and maintaining social order. The social recognition of biological ties, rather than the biological fact itself, is of paramount importance in establishing lineage and descent. Kinship also has significant implications in various aspects of society, such as reproduction, group membership, political and economic functions, and social stability. Furthermore, inheritance and succession rules differ across cultures, highlighting the diverse ways in which kinship structures shape human societies.