Literature: Literature in the newly Developing Languages | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• The Early Medieval Period in Indian history saw a significant growth in regional identity across various aspects like polity, society, and culture.
• Art during this period became recognizable through different regional schools, such as Eastern, Orissan, Central Indian, West Indian, and Central Deccanese, as well as through specific labels like Pallava and Chola, which also implied regional contexts.
• In social communication media like script,language, and literature, there was a clear regional character emerging.
• Several regional languages evolved in both North and South India during this time, although in North India, they were in their early forms.
• Literary works in these vernaculars reflected a strong regional spirit, driven by local demand and the need for a colloquial language that was accessible to the common people.
• Vedic Sanskrit evolved into Classical Sanskrit, which then gave rise to four types of Prakrit spoken in different parts of India:
• Shauraseni in the Mathura region,
• Magadhi in Magadh,
• Paicachi in the North-Western parts of India, and
• Maharashtri in Maharashtra.
• These regional Prakrits eventually degenerated into Apabhramsha, from which the regional languages evolved, though still in a nascent form during this period.
• Indian languages are broadly divided into two groups:
• Indo-Aryan languages, descending from Sanskrit, including Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Oriya, Assamese, and others.
• Dravidian languages, such as Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam, which have an earlier evolutionary history.

Bengali

Religion significantly influenced life and thought, particularly in Bengal, which was a hub for popular religious movements.
Bengal was the last region to be incorporated into Aryavarta, the land dominated by the Aryans.
As a result, the Brahmanic influence remained weak for centuries in Bengal.
This weakness allowed for the greater acceptance of the more liberal beliefs of Buddhism and Jainism.

• In the late tenth century A.D., Buddhist monks known as the Siddhacharyas, part of the Mahayana sect and supported by the Pala rulers of Bengal, began writing texts in Prakrit.
• The Charyyapadas were the most significant literary work from this time, although they were still in a basic form.
• The language of these songs, called Charyyageets, represented an early form of Bengali and is considered a precursor to later Bengali religious songs.
• These songs were primarily focused on religious themes and discussed the philosophies of various Buddhist schools like Vajrayana and Sahajiya.
• While lacking in literary elegance, their significance lay in their linguistic and doctrinal content.
• The literary output of this period was mainly driven by the Tantric Buddhists who aimed to spread their beliefs.
• Initially, the use of Bengali for literature by Buddhists was criticized by Brahman scholars who preferred Sanskrit.
• These scholars considered Bengali unsuitable for serious discourse and wanted to maintain control over the interpretation of shastras.
• As the Palas declined and the Sen dynasty rose, Buddhism started to diminish in the region where it originally thrived.
• The Sena rule marked a revival of Hinduism in Bengal.
• Brahman pandits during this time favored strict classical grammar rules and looked down upon the vernacular.
• The Senas also took pride in having numerous Sanskrit scholars in their courts.
• These scholars enjoyed the elaborate style and rhetorical finesse found in seventh-century Sanskrit literature.
• Additionally, the inscriptions from the Pala and Sena kings of Bengal reflect the use of both Sanskrit and the vernacular.
• Examples include: Pala king Dharmapala’s Khalimpur Copper Plate,Devapala’s Nalanda Copper Plate,Sena King Vijayasena’s Deopara Prasasti,Naihati Copper Plate of Lakshmanasena.
• These inscriptions provide valuable insights into the politics,socio-economics,religion, and administration of the time.

Oriya

Orissa: A Cultural Synthesis of Dravidian and Aryan Influences:

• Orissa, located between North and South India along the eastern coast, showcases a blend of Dravidian and Aryan cultures.
• The Oriya language, part of the Indo-Aryan group, exhibits Dravidian influences in everyday vocabulary.
• Oriya, like Bengali and Assamese, belongs to the eastern or Magadhi group of Indo-Aryan languages.
• The Oriya script, derived from the Brahmi script, evolved by incorporating elements from the southern Kalinga script and the northern Gupta and Proto-Bengali scripts.
• Kalinga, conquered by Asoka in the third century B.C., produced inscriptions in Magadhi Prakrit, believed to be the precursor of Eastern Indian languages like Assamese, Bengali, and Oriya.
• Kharavela's inscription in Pali from the first century B.C. indicates that Pali-Prakrit, with local variations, was the cultural language of Orissa.
• Despite the rulers' preference for Sanskrit, the common people and Buddhist intellectuals communicated in a language closer to modern Oriya by this time.
• The prevalent religion was Mahayana Buddhism, influenced by Tantric elements, with Buddhist monks composing poems supported by the Bhauma kings.
• These poems reflect the Natha-Mahayanic philosophy intrinsic to Oriya culture.
• Between the seventh and ninth centuries, Apabhramsha Buddhist poetry flourished, but there is a gap in vernacular literature until the thirteenth century.
• During this period, Sanskrit-based Brahmanism dominated, leading to the persecution of Buddhism under the Imperial Gangas and Solars.
• Revivalist Hindu figures like Sankara, Ramanuja, Madhva, and Nimbarka spread their faiths in Orissa, using Sanskrit, which was inaccessible to the common people.
• The vernacular reemerged in the eleventh century with inscriptions like that of Ananta Varma Vajrahasta Deva, marking a shift in literary expression.

Assamese

Key Points about Assam's Historical and Literary Development (6th to 10th Century A.D.):

• During the period from the 6th to the end of the 10th century A.D.,Kamarupa, previously known as Pragjyotisa, was under the rule of Bhutivarman from the Pusyavarman lineage.
• In the Barganga Rock Inscription,Bhutivarman is referred to as an asvamedhayayin, indicating his performance of the asvamedha sacrifice.
• Throughout this period, the Kamarupi Prakrit evolved into the Kamarupi Apabhramsha.
• By the early 11th century A.D., Kamarupi Apabhramsha transitioned into Kamarupi or early Assamese.
• The aphorisms and sayings of Dak Mahapurusa represent the earliest collection of popular literature in Assamese, primarily in verse form.
• These wise maxims were also popular in Bengal,Bihar, and Nepal, offering insights into the customs, beliefs, and conduct rules of the time.
• The compositions reflect the era's spirit and the principles of Buddhist ethics and morality.
• The emergence of distinctive Assamese literature is marked by folk songs, known as Bihugeets, along with pastoral ballads, marriage songs, and nursery rhymes.
• Bihu songs are closely associated with the Bihu festivals.
• However, recorded literature in Assamese began around A.D. 1200.

Marathi

Evolution of Marathi Language and Literature:

• The Marathi language primarily derives its vocabulary from Sanskrit,Prakrit,Pali, and Apabhramsha. It began to be used for literary purposes around the 11th century.
• There is limited evidence to trace the development of Marathi from Maharashtri Prakrit, but the influence of Apabhramsha is more evident.
• Some scholars believe that Marathi represents a re-Sanskritized stage of language development.
• The 9th century saw the revival of Hinduism as the dominant religion, coinciding with the development of Marathi.
• During this period, the Rashtrakuta dynasty ruled Maharashtra, with kings like Dantidurga,Krishna,Dhruva, and Govinda being patrons of art and learning, although Sanskrit remained the language of learning.
• Marathi was spoken as early as around 600 A.D. and had spread to regions as far as Mysore in the south, but it was not yet a literary language.
• The earliest Marathi inscription, dating back to around 983 A.D., is found at the foot of the monolithic statue of Gomateshwara in Shravanbelgola, Mysore. More than twenty inscriptions and copper plates in Marathi from the 10th to 12th centuries have been discovered, marking the language's development.
• The widespread use of Marathi is evident from documents like the charitable gift deed at Patan around 1203 A.D. and the imperial mandates of King Aparnaditya around 1183 A.D., which were written in Marathi.
• By the time of the Yadava kings, Marathi had gained a respectable status in court life, with treatises being written and read in Marathi.
• In the 12th century, under the last three Yadava kings, a diverse range of literature in Marathi, including folk-tales, folk songs, and treatises on various subjects, was produced.
• Another genre of literature emerged, consisting of long poems based on Pauranic stories or religious discourses, with Viveksindhu by Mukundaraj being the oldest work of this type.
• The 12th century also saw the rise of popular religious cults that broke away from orthodox Hinduism and Sanskrit domination, such as the Nath cult, which spread across India and used Marathi for its teachings.
• Mukundaraj, a member of the Nath Panthi sect and the author of Viveksindhu, contributed to the main current of Marathi literature focused on religious and philosophical exposition in verse.
• Mukundaraj wrote other works like Paramamrit,Paramvijaya, and Mulastambha, reflecting the confluence of various contemporary currents and presenting ancient Hindu texts from the perspective of the cult.

Kannada

Literary Development in Ancient Karnataka:

• Sanskrit: The literary medium for the high and sophisticated culture south of the Vindhyas.
• Regional Kingdoms: The Rashtrakutas, Cholas, and others nurtured vernacular languages like Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, and Malayalam, alongside Sanskrit.
• Influence of Aryan Language: All these languages and their literary works owed much to the language of the Aryans, which helped them attain literary status.
• Nripatunga’s Kavirajamarga(c.A.D. 850): The earliest extant work on rhetoric in Kannada, based on Dandin’s Kavyadarsa, likely patronized by Rashtrakuta ruler Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I.
• Syamakundacarya(c.A.D. 650): An early writer, who was a Jain.
• Vaddaradhane by Sivakoti(c.A.D. 900): The first extant work on literature, a prose piece about older Jain saints, written in the oldest Kannada style called Purvahal-Kannada.

Pampa:

• Originated from Vengi and thrived in the court of a feudatory of Rashtrakuta king Krishna III, Arikesari II of Vemulavada.
• Composed two significant poems at the age of thirty-nine (c.A.D. 941):
• Adipurana: Narrates the life of the first Jain Tirthankara.
• Vikramarjuna Vijaya: A retelling of the Mahabharata story, also known as Pampa-Bharata.
• Regarded as the most eminent among Kannada poets.

Ponna:

• A junior contemporary of Pampa.
• Best known for the Santipurana, the legendary history of the sixteenth Tirthankara.
• Also wrote the Bhuvanai-Karamabhyudaya and the Jinaksharamale, a poem praising the Jainas.
• Originated from Vengi and received the title “Ubhayakavicakravarti” (supreme poet in two languages – Sanskrit and Kannada) from Rashtrakuta king Krishna III.

Ranna:

• Along with Pampa and Ponna, completes the trio known as “the Three Gems” in Kannada literature.
• Served in the court of Chalukya kings Taila II and his successor.
• Achieved the rank of Kavicakravarti in the Chalukya court.
• Ajitapurana(c.A.D. 993): A work on the life of the second Tirthankara.
• Gadayuddha(c.A.D. 982): A retelling of the Mahabharata, focusing on the last fight between Bhima and Duryodhana.

Chavundaraya:

• An early patron of Ranna, a feudatory of Ganga Racamalla II.
• Composed the Cavundaraya Purana around c.A.D. 978, one of the earliest extant prose works in Kannada, detailing the legends of the twenty-four Tirthankaras.

Nagavarma I:

• A protégé of Chavundaraya from a Brahmin family.
• Wrote Chandombudhi, the earliest work on prosody in Kannada.

Durgasimha:

• A Brahmin Shaiva minister under Jayasimha II Jagadekamalla.
• Authored Pancatantra, a Campu based on Gunadhya’s Brihatkatha.

Brahman Advaita Saiva:

• Protégé of Jayasimha, author of Lokopakara(c.A.D. 1025), a guide to daily life covering various subjects in verse.

Sridharacarya:

• A Jain Brahmin who wrote Jataka-tilaka(c.A.D. 1049), the earliest work on astrology in Kannada.

Nagavarmacarya:

• A Jain Advaitin, patronized by Ganga Udayaditya(c.A.D. 1070).
• Authored Candracudamanisataka, focusing on the ethics of renunciation.

Nagachandra:

• A Jain who built the Mallinatha Jinalaya at Bijapur, dedicated to the nineteenth Tirthankara.
• Wrote the Mallinathapurana and is best known for the Ramachandra charitapurana, offering the Jain version of the Rama legend in a Campu.
• Earned the title Abhinava Pampa for his work, complementing Pampa’s Bharata.

Govaidya of Kirttivama:

• A 12th-century work on veterinary science, blending medicine and magic.

Karnaparya:

• In c.A.D. 1145, wrote the life of the 22nd Tirthankara in his Neminathapurana, a Campu, interweaving the story of Krishna and the Mahabharata.

Nagavarma II:

• Authored Kavyavalokana, an important work on Kannada grammar and rhetoric.
• Wrote the Karnatakabhashabhushana, focusing on grammar, with illustrations from Kannada literature.
• Composed the Vastukosa, a lexicon providing Kannada equivalents of Sanskrit terms.

Udayadityalankara(c.A.D. 1150): A brief work on poetry, influenced by Dandin’s Kavyadarsa, authored by a Chola prince.

Pujyapada’s Kalyanakaraka: A work on medicine translated from Sanskrit into Kannada by Jain author Jagaddala Somanatha.

Most of the mentioned writers were Jains, with the Vira-saivas and Vaishnavas beginning to influence Kannada literature from the 12th and 15th centuries, respectively. Jain writers continued to thrive under the later Hoysalas, producing numerous puranas in the form of Campus centered around the Tirthankaras' lives.

Nemichandra: He was a court-poet under Vira Ballala. He wrote the Lilavati, a plain romance. He undertook to write the Neminathapurana, at the instance of Ballala’s minister, but died before completing it, and the work came to be known as Ardha Nemi (unfinished life of Nemi).

Telegu 

Ancient Telugu Country and Language:

• In ancient times, the region now known as Telugu country was often called Trilinga. This name referred to the area bounded by the three lingas(sacred symbols of Lord Shiva) at Kalahasti,Srisailam, and Daksharama.
• The name Telugu for both the country and the language may have originated from this term. Some suggest that Tel(n)ugu comes from words like tene(honey) or tennu(way).
• The earliest traces of the Telugu language can be found in stone inscriptions from the fifth and sixth centuries A.D. Its fundamental elements show similarities with Tamil and Kannada.
• However, from the outset, the literary form of Telugu was heavily influenced by Sanskrit.

Inscriptions and Linguistic Affinity:

• Inscriptions from the ruling dynasties of the sixth and seventh centuries are primarily in Sanskrit, with a mix of Prakrit and Telugu words.
• Initially, Telugu shared many similarities with Kannada, and this connection continued for a significant period in the development of both languages.
• Notable Kannada poets Pampa and Ponna hailed from the Telugu region, while the renowned Telugu poet Srinatha identified himself as a poet in Karnatabhasha(Kannada language).

Early Telugu Literature and Influence of Sanskrit:

• Early Telugu prose and poetry are primarily found in inscriptions, such as those of the Telugu-Chodas and the Eastern Chalukyas. A well-developed verse graces the grant of General Panduranga(circa A.D. 845-846).
• It is believed that there was a rich tradition of unwritten literature of a popular nature that brightened the daily lives of ordinary people. 
• These desi compositionsmay have included:
  • lalipatalu(cradle songs),
  • melukolupulu(dawn songs),
  • mangala haratulu(festivity songs),
  • kirtanalu(devotional songs), and
  • udupu patalu(harvest songs).
• No works of higher literature, heavily influenced by Sanskrit, have survived before the eleventh century.
• Telugu literature, as we recognize it today, begins with Nannaya’s translation of the Mahabharata during the reign of Rajaraja Narendra(circa A.D. 1019-1061).
• Nannaya is also believed to have written the Andhra-sabda-cintamani, the first Telugu grammar that systematized the language by standardizing words and their usage. He earned the title "Vaganusasana", meaning law-giver of the language.

Contributions of Nannaya and Vemulavada Bhima Kavi:

• Nannaya, a pivotal figure in early Telugu literature, is celebrated for his translation of the Mahabharata and for authoring the Andhra-sabda-cintamani, which established foundational rules for the Telugu language.
• His efforts in standardizing Telugu vocabulary and grammar earned him the title "Vaganusasana", signifying his role as a lawgiver for the language.
• Vemulavada Bhima Kavi, a contemporary of Nannaya, contributed to Telugu literature as well.
• He was associated with the Eastern Ganga King Anantavarman Chodaganga and authored Kavijanasraya, a grammar of the Telugu language.
• The twelfth century saw the rise of Vira-saivism as a significant influence in the religious life of the Telugu people, leading to a more sectarian perspective.
• Poets of this era, such as Mallikarjuna Pandita and Nanne Choda, were generally supporters of this faith.

Influence of Vira-saivism and Prominent Poets:

• Vira-saivism became a significant influence in the religious life of the Telugu people from the twelfth century onwards, fostering a more sectarian perspective.
• Mallikarjuna Pandita, a notable poet of this period, was the guru of Nanne Choda. His work Siva-tattva-Saram is a detailed exposition of Vira-saivism in about five hundred verses.
• Nanne Choda, a prince from the Telugu-Choda dynasty and the son of Chodaballi of Pakanadu, made significant contributions to Telugu literature. He authored Kumarasambhava, a Mahakavya (great poem).
• This work is based on Sanskrit texts with the same theme by Kalidasa and Udbhata, and it also draws upon Saiva literature known to the author.

Malayalam

Malayalam Language Development:

• Malayalam was the last among the South Indian languages to establish its own identity and literature.
• The literary form of Malayalam, similar to Kannada and Telugu, borrowed extensively from Sanskrit. To accurately represent Sanskrit sounds, it replaced the old Vatteluttu script with a new script derived from Tamilgrantha.
• This transition likely occurred around the tenth century.
• Early inscriptions in the region used the grantha script for Sanskrit words while the Tamil-Malayalam text was written in Vatteluttu.
• The oldest known literary work in Malayalam dates back to after 1200 AD.
• Literary activities in this vernacular began to flourish from the thirteenth to fourteenth centuries onwards.
• In contrast to North Indian vernaculars like Bengali, Oriya, Assamese, and Marathi, which were still in their early stages of literary development, the southern Dravidian languages exhibited steady growth, producing a vast body of literature across various fields of knowledge.