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Mahalwari Settlement: Land Revenue System in British India | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Mahalwari Settlement

Introduction:

  • The North Western Provinces and Oudh, which roughly correspond to modern-day Uttar Pradesh, came under British rule at different times.
  • In 1801, the Nawab of Oudh surrendered the districts of Allahabad and surrounding areas to the British East India Company. These areas were known as the ‘Ceded Districts’.
  • After the Second Anglo-Maratha War, the Company acquired territory between the Jamuna and the Ganges, referred to as the ‘Conquered Provinces’.
  • Following the last Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818), Lord Hastings expanded British territories in Northern India.
  • The concept of the ‘village community’ was not present in the Permanent Settlement or the Ryotwari system.

Expansion of British Territory (1801-1806):

  • Between 1801 and 1806, vast stretches of territory in north and north-western India were overrun, including the Ganga-Jumna Doab.
  • In the agrarian structure of this area, there were:
  • Taluqdars: A small group of magnates, described by Nurul Hasan as “intermediary zamindars” who contracted with the state to collect revenue for a given territory.
  • Primary Zamindars: A large group of “holders of proprietary rights over agricultural as well as habitational lands”.
  • With the Bengal model in mind, the British initially collected revenue from the taluqdars.
  • Henry Wellesley, the first Lieutenant Governor of the Ceded Districts, made a land revenue settlement with taluqdars for three years, setting the State demand significantly higher than that of the Nawab of Oudh.
  • Unlike the Nawab, whose revenue collection varied with actual production, the Company’s demand was rigid and consistent.
  • Similar land revenue settlements were established for the conquered provinces.
  • The initial short-term settlements, which were eventually made permanent, were based on flawed estimates of productivity and often resulted in abnormally high revenue assessments.
  • As a result, the British shifted their preference from taluqdars to primary zamindars and village communities.

Mahalwari System:

  • The Mahalwari System was first experimented in Awadh in 1801 and later in territory acquired from the Marathas in 1803-04.
  • Under this system, the unit for revenue settlement is the village or mahal (estate).
  • The village land belongs jointly to the village community, technically known as ‘the body of co-shares’.
  • The body of co-shares is collectively responsible for the payment of land revenue, although individual responsibility also exists.
  • If any co-sharer abandons his land, it is taken over by the village community as a whole.
  • The village community owns the village ‘common land’, including forest land, pastures, etc.

Introduction in North-West Provinces (1822):

  • The Mahalwari System was introduced in the North-West Provinces (Upper Provinces) in 1822, based on the Holt Mackenzie Plan of 1819.
  • The Regulation of 1822, formulated by Holt Mackenzie, emphasized the existence of village communities in Northern Indiaand recommended:
    • A survey of land
    • Preparation of records of rights in land
    • Settlement of land revenue demand mahal by mahal
    • Collection of land revenue through the village headman
  • Regulation VII of 1822 gave legal sanction to these recommendations, making land revenue settlements based on 80% of the rental value, payable by the zamindars.
  • In cases where estates were held by cultivators in common tenancy, the State demand was fixed at 95% of the rental.
  • The system faced breakdown due to excessive state demand and harsh implementation.
  • The new settlement was marred by confusion and corruption, as the survey, a crucial part of the arrangement, failed due to its complexity.
  • This led to over-assessment and the system's eventual collapse.

Question for Mahalwari Settlement: Land Revenue System in British India
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What was the primary unit for revenue settlement under the Mahalwari System?
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Modification in 1833 by Bentinck:

  • The Government of William Bentinck reviewed the scheme of 1822 and found it to cause widespread misery and fail due to its harshness.
  • The Regulation of 1833, based on the Robert Marttines Bird Plan, provided for a detailed survey to assess the revenue of an entire mahal or fiscal unit, based on the net value of potential produce of the field.
  • Land in a tract was surveyed, showing field boundaries and both cultivated and uncultivated land.
  • The assessment for the entire tract was fixed, followed by setting down the demand for each village, allowing the mahal powers to make internal adjustments.
  • The introduction of average rents for different classes of soil was a significant change.
  • The use of field maps and field registers was prescribed for the first time.
  • The rate was reduced to 66% of the net income of the land, with assessments made for 30 years.
  • The new scheme was supervised by Mentins Bird, known as the Father of Land Settlements in Northern India.
  • The settlement work under this scheme began in 1833 and was completed under the administration of James Thomson (Lt. Governor, 1843-53).

Modification based on James Thomson Plan, 1844:

  • The James Thomson Plan of 1844 was a comprehensive land settlement code approved by the court of directors in 1851.
  • However, the village settlements initiated by Bird and completed by James Thomason were based on imperfect surveys and inaccurate calculations, leading to over-assessment.
  • The settlements were characterized by a clear hostility towards the taluqdars, who Bird considered unproductive.
  • The village communities faced ruin due to high revenue demands, mounting debt burdens, revenue arrears, and dispossession through civil court decrees.
  • Land often passed into the hands of moneylenders and merchants.
  • Even the 66% rental demand formula proved to be harsh and unworkable.

Introduction of New Rules in 1855:

  • In 1855, Lord Dalhousie recognized the need for fresh directions for Settlement Officers, particularly concerning the re-settlement of Shaharanpur district.
  • The revised Saharanpur Rules of 1855 limited the State revenue demand to 50% of the rental value.
  • Unfortunately, Settlement officers often evaded these new rules, interpreting the 50% rental value as half of the “prospective and potential” rental of estates rather than the “actual rentals”.
  • This interpretation placed a heavy burden on the agricultural classes and contributed to widespread discontent, culminating in the Revolt of 1857.
  • The Mahalwari System was later introduced in Punjab and Central India.

Malgujari Settlement (1863)

  • Introduced in the Central Provinces, created in 1861.
  • Settlement was made with Malgujars, who were traditional land revenue collectors.
  • Malgujars were granted proprietary rights.
  • Rate was fixed at 50% according to the Saharanpur rules.
  • Settlement was made for 30 years.
  • This settlement was a variant of the Mahalwari Settlement, and Richard Temple was a key figure behind it.

Taluqdari Settlement (1860-1878)

  • Introduced in Awadh during this period.
  • Settlement was made with Taluqdars as a response to their discontent following the revolt of 1857.
  • Taluqdars were granted proprietary rights over their estates.
  • Sub-proprietary rights were vested in village communities concerning Taluqdars.
  • Settlement was made for 30 years.

Question for Mahalwari Settlement: Land Revenue System in British India
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Which land settlement system was introduced in the Central Provinces in 1863?
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Conclusion

  • By the mid-19th century, the British East India Company had established three systems of land revenue administration, creating private property in land and granting proprietary rights to different groups:
  • The Permanent Settlement was made with zamindars, primarily in the northern districts of the Madras Presidency.
  • The Ryotwari Settlement was introduced for ryots or peasant proprietors in regions like Sind, Assam, and Coorg.
  • The Mahalwari Settlement was applied to village communities, particularly in Punjab and central India as those areas were conquered.
  • By 1928-29, approximately 19% of cultivable land was under zamindari settlement, 29% under Mahalwari settlement and 52% under Ryotwari system.
  • All settlements shared a common issue of over-assessment, as the Company aimed to maximize revenue, leading to arrears of payment, mounting debt, increased land sales, and dispossession.

Disintegration of Village Economy

  • The East India Company's revenue systems, heavy state demands, and new judicial and administrative setups disrupted the Indian rural economy.
  • The village Panchayats lost their key roles in land settlements and judicial functions.
  • The Patel became a mere government official responsible for revenue collection, leading to the breakdown of the traditional village community structure.
  • The introduction of private property in land transformed land into a market commodity.
  • New social classes emerged, including landlords, traders, moneylenders, and the landed gentry, while the rural proletariat, poor peasant proprietors, sub-tenants, and agricultural laborers increased in number.
  • The shift from cooperation to competition and individualism set the stage for capitalist agricultural development.
  • British imperial rule introduced significant changes in agrarian structure, including new land tenures, ownership concepts, and heavier state demands for land revenue.
  • The colonial state had a mixed record in generating resources in India, with limited initiatives to develop agricultural production and public investment driven by profitability and contingency factors.
  • Regional irrigation developments primarily benefited the more prosperous peasantry, with high canal rates limiting access for many.
  • Agricultural yields remained static in colonial India, with food crop production lagging behind population growth, leading to near-famine conditions and significant famines, such as the one in Bengal in 1943.
The document Mahalwari Settlement: Land Revenue System in British India | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) is a part of the UPSC Course History Optional for UPSC (Notes).
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FAQs on Mahalwari Settlement: Land Revenue System in British India - History Optional for UPSC (Notes)

1. What is the Mahalwari Settlement and its significance in British India?
Ans. The Mahalwari Settlement was a land revenue system introduced by the British in India during the early 19th century, primarily in the North-Western provinces and parts of the Central India. It aimed to simplify the tax collection process by fixing revenue rates for entire villages, or "mahals," rather than individual landholders. This system was significant as it provided a more stable revenue source for the British while also creating a collective responsibility for land revenue among the villagers, fostering a sense of community ownership.
2. How did the Mahalwari Settlement differ from the Permanent Settlement?
Ans. The Mahalwari Settlement differed from the Permanent Settlement in several key ways. While the Permanent Settlement, introduced by Lord Cornwallis, fixed land revenue permanently for individual zamindars (landlords), the Mahalwari System established a system where the revenue was assessed for entire villages. Under Mahalwari, the villagers collectively shared the burden of land revenue, which was subject to periodic reassessments, unlike the fixed rates of the Permanent Settlement.
3. What were the main features of the Mahalwari Settlement?
Ans. The main features of the Mahalwari Settlement included the collective assessment of land revenue for entire villages, the responsibility of revenue payment resting with village headmen, and periodic revisions of land revenue rates based on agricultural productivity. This system aimed to reduce the burden on individual farmers and promote agricultural development by ensuring that tax rates were aligned with the economic conditions of the village.
4. What impact did the Mahalwari Settlement have on Indian agriculture and society?
Ans. The Mahalwari Settlement had both positive and negative impacts on Indian agriculture and society. On one hand, it encouraged collective responsibility and community management of land, which could lead to better agricultural practices. On the other hand, the periodic reassessment of revenue could lead to increased financial pressure on farmers during poor harvests. Additionally, it often resulted in conflicts between villagers and the British authorities over revenue collection, contributing to social tensions.
5. What were the criticisms of the Mahalwari Settlement?
Ans. Criticisms of the Mahalwari Settlement included its complex and often confusing nature, which made it difficult for villagers to understand their obligations. Many argued that the system did not adequately protect the rights of individual farmers, as the collective responsibility model could lead to exploitation by village headmen. Additionally, the periodic reassessments were seen as arbitrary and could result in increased taxes during times of hardship, making it difficult for farmers to sustain their livelihoods.
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