Marriage | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Marriage - An Universal Social Institution

Marriage is a significant and widespread social institution in society, serving as the primary means to regulate human reproduction. It offers a formal structure for entering into a lasting heterosexual relationship for having and raising children. The right to engage in sexual relationships in marriage leygitimizes children born within the union, ensuring the proper inheritance and succession. Additionally, marriage establishes the family, a stable social group responsible for nurturing and educating children. Historically, marriage has supplied the necessary institutional mechanisms for the replacement of societal members, contributing to human survival and the continuity of society.

• According to Horton and Hunt, marriage serves as the approved social pattern for two or more individuals to create a family. Edward Westermarck defines marriage as a somewhat permanent connection between a man and a woman, lasting beyond the act of reproduction and continuing after the birth of their offspring. Malinowski describes marriage as a contract for producing and maintaining children. Numerous anthropologists have tried to uncover the history of the marriage institution, but there is no general agreement among them.
• For instance, Lewis Morgan's evolutionary theory suggests that early human groupings experienced unregulated sexual relationships, and the institution of family did not exist. Morgan proposed that society evolved from a state of promiscuity into group marriage, then polygamy, and eventually monogamy. In contrast, Westermark believes that the history of marriage began with monogamy, based on the assumption that men are naturally acquisitive and possessive. Additionally, anthropologist Robert Briffault asserts that the early stage of marital relationships saw mothers holding supreme authority. He disputes the ideas of patriarchy proposed by Morgan and monogamy suggested by Westermark as the initial forms of marriage and family.

All societies have prescriptions and proscriptions regarding who may or may not marry whom.
In some societies, the restrictions on who can and cannot marry are subtle, while in others, they are more clearly and specifically defined. These forms of marriage, based on rules governing the eligibility or ineligibility of partners, can be classified into two categories: endogamy and exogamy. Endogamy requires individuals to marry within a culturally defined group to which they already belong, such as a caste, religion, or tribe. The most common forms of endogamy are based on caste and religion. Many religious groups discourage or prohibit their members from marrying individuals of different faiths. Endogamy is also a significant feature of the Indian caste system.

• Exogamy is a social norm that requires individuals to marry outside of their own group, preventing marriages between close relatives, kins, and members of the same clan. This practice is found in various forms across different communities. For instance, in China, people with the same surname are forbidden to marry each other, while in Hindu communities, marriage is prohibited among members of the same Gotra (a group of families sharing a common ancestor) and Sapinda (relatives within seven generations on the father's side and five generations on the mother's side).
• The incest taboo is a key aspect of exogamy and is observed in nearly every society, as it prohibits sexual relationships between primary kin, such as father-daughter, mother-son, and brother-sister. There are several sociological, psychological, and scientific reasons for the existence of incest taboos. According to Kingsley Davis, these taboos limit sexual relations and emotional attachments to married pairs, excluding relationships between parent and child or siblings. This helps to prevent confusion within kinship organizations and maintain the structure of the family.
• Furthermore, there are scientific justifications for the restrictions imposed by incest taboos. From a eugenic standpoint, there is concern that intermarriage between close relatives, such as cousins, may result in the perpetuation and transfer of physiological inadequacies to their offspring. Overall, exogamic rules are designed to regulate marriage relationships and maintain social order within communities.

Generally, there are two forms of marriage prevalent in different parts of world:

• Monogamy: One Spouse at a Time: Monogamy is a system of marriage in which an individual is restricted to only one spouse at a time. This prevalent form of marriage is found in all societies and is almost universal in modern industrial societies. Serial monogamy allows for remarriage after the death of a spouse or divorce, while straight monogamy does not permit remarriage. The enactment of the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 allowed Hindu women to remarry, moving society towards serial monogamy.
• Polygamy: Multiple Spouses: Polygamy is a marriage arrangement in which a woman has more than one husband (polyandry) or a man has more than one wife (polygyny). Polygyny is more common than polyandry worldwide. Research by Murdock, which analyzed 283 societies, found that 193 practiced polygyny, 43 were monogamous, and only 2 practiced polyandry.
• Polyandry: Multiple Husbands: Polyandry is less common than other forms of marriage, possibly because it leads to fewer children per woman, more male children, and a higher incidence of sterility among women. There are two forms of polyandry: fraternal (adelphic) polyandry and non-fraternal polyandry. In fraternal polyandry, a woman is married to all brothers, while in non-fraternal polyandry, a woman has several husbands who are not brothers. Paternity in polyandrous societies is more legal and social than biological. Some scholars believe that extreme poverty is the main factor responsible for polyandry.
• Polygynandry: Mixed Polygamy: In some polygamous societies, preferential rules for the choice of spouses are followed. Males may marry their wife’s sisters (sororal polygyny) and females their husband’s brothers (fraternal polyandry). Other forms of preferential marriages include levirate, sororate, cross-cousin marriage, and parallel-cousin marriage.
• Levirate and Sororate Marriages: Levirate is a custom in which a widow marries one of her husband's brothers, while sororate refers to a widower marrying the sister of his deceased wife. These customs are often followed to maintain property within the family.
• Cross-Cousin and Parallel-Cousin Marriages: Cross-cousin marriage refers to the marriage of the children of siblings of the opposite sex (e.g., children of a brother and sister), while parallel-cousin marriage refers to the marriage of the children of siblings of the same sex (e.g., children of two brothers or two sisters). Cross-cousin marriage is often practiced to avoid the payment of a high bride price and to maintain property within the household.

Conclusion

Marriage is a universal social institution that plays a crucial role in regulating human reproduction, establishing families, and maintaining social order. Various forms of marriage, such as monogamy, polygamy, and preferential marriages, exist across different cultures, with rules and restrictions like endogamy, exogamy, and incest taboos shaping these relationships. Despite the diverse theories and practices surrounding marriage, it remains a vital institution for human survival and the continuity of society.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Marriage

What is the main purpose of the institution of marriage in society?

The main purpose of marriage is to provide a formal structure for entering into a lasting heterosexual relationship for having and raising children. It legitimizes children born within the union, ensures proper inheritance and succession, and establishes the family as a stable social group responsible for nurturing and educating children.

What are the two main categories of marriage based on rules governing the eligibility or ineligibility of partners?

The two main categories of marriage are endogamy, which requires individuals to marry within a culturally defined group such as a caste, religion, or tribe, and exogamy, which requires individuals to marry outside of their own group, preventing marriages between close relatives, kins, and members of the same clan.

What is the difference between monogamy and polygamy in the context of marriage?

Monogamy is a system of marriage in which an individual is restricted to only one spouse at a time, while polygamy is a marriage arrangement in which a woman has more than one husband (polyandry) or a man has more than one wife (polygyny).

What are some examples of preferential marriage customs?

Some examples of preferential marriage customs include levirate (a widow marries one of her husband's brothers), sororate (a widower marrying the sister of his deceased wife), cross-cousin marriage (marriage of the children of siblings of the opposite sex), and parallel-cousin marriage (marriage of the children of siblings of the same sex).

What is the incest taboo and why does it exist?

The incest taboo is a key aspect of exogamy and is observed in nearly every society. It prohibits sexual relationships between primary kin, such as father-daughter, mother-son, and brother-sister. There are several sociological, psychological, and scientific reasons for the existence of incest taboos, such as preventing confusion within kinship organizations, maintaining the structure of the family, and minimizing the risk of transferring physiological inadequacies to offspring through intermarriage between close relatives.