Marxist Sociology (A.R. DESAI) | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction - Marxist Sociology (Akshay Ramanlal Desai)

Akshay Ramanlal Desai (1915-1994) was a prominent Indian sociologist who consistently advocated for and applied the dialectical-historical model in his studies. Heavily influenced by Marx, Engels, and Trotsky, Desai was a pioneer in incorporating a modern Marxist approach to examining Indian society.

• Unlike other Indian sociologists, Desai consistently applied Marxist methods in analyzing Indian social structures and processes. He was a staunch Marxist and rejected any interpretations of tradition based on religion, rituals, or festivities, considering them secular phenomena. According to Desai, the nature of tradition is economic and can be found in family, village, and other social institutions.
• Desai utilized a Marxian perspective and history to study various aspects of Indian society, such as nationalism, community development programs, state-society relations, polity-social structure relations, urban slums, and peasant movements. These studies were all based on the Marxist method of historical dialectical materialism.
• Desai believed that economic relationships played a significant role in the continuity of traditional institutions in India, which would change as these relationships evolved. He posited that as traditions became linked with economic relations, changes in the latter would eventually lead to changes in the former. For instance, he believed that the caste system would disintegrate with the emergence of new social and material conditions, such as industrialization, economic growth, and education.
• Desai argued that the contradictions arising in the Indian process of social transformation primarily stemmed from the growing connection among the capitalist bourgeoisie, the rural petty bourgeoisie, and the state apparatus, all originating from similar social backgrounds. This connection suppresses the aspirations of rural and industrial working classes through the use of power and strategic maneuvers. However, these contradictions are not resolved; instead, they take on new cumulative forms and re-emerge as protests and social movements. Desai attributed this social unrest to the capitalist path of development followed by India, which he saw as an inheritance from the national movement.

Pre- British India

In the pre-British era, Indian villages were self-sufficient entities primarily comprised of peasant families. These families held traditional hereditary rights to possess and cultivate their land, passing it down through generations. The village economy was centered around agriculture, which was conducted using primitive tools such as ploughs and bullock power, as well as handicrafts produced with basic equipment.

• The village council, representing the village community, was considered the de facto owner of the village land. Exchanges of goods and services were primarily confined within the village, with minimal interaction with external communities. The societal structure placed great emphasis on the caste system, family ties, and the authority of the village panchayat.
• Indian culture during this period was characterized by feudalism and mysticism, reflecting the overall low economic status and static nature of society. Social rigidity and a focus on maintaining traditions contributed to a lack of significant changes, with any developments being more quantitative rather than qualitative in nature.

British Impact- Transformation of Indian Society

The British conquest of India led to a significant transformation of Indian society, moving from a feudal economy to a capitalist one. This was achieved through the implementation of political and economic policies, focusing on trade, industry, and finance. The introduction of new economic reforms disrupted the pre-existing economic system, leading to the decay of traditional land relations and the rise of modern land relations and industries.

• The British impact on India extended beyond economic changes; it also influenced social aspects of society. The traditional class of artisans was replaced by modern industry, giving rise to a new class structure in both rural and urban areas, including Zamindars, tenants, peasant proprietors, agricultural laborers, moneylenders, merchants, and professionals such as doctors, lawyers, and engineers. This led to a growing polarization of classes, increased poverty in rural areas, and exploitation by landowners.
• Furthermore, the British introduced railways, postal services, uniform law, English education, and modern industry, which brought about a qualitative change in Indian society. While the British government exploited India in various ways, their actions unintentionally led to the unification of Indian society through the roles of railways and the press. This social and infrastructural development contributed to the rise of nationalist freedom movements and the awakening of Indian nationalism.
• Desai's Marxist approach to the study of nationalism in India during the British rule focuses on the material conditions created by British colonialism, such as the development of new economic relations through industrialization and modernization. By examining various aspects of Indian society, including rural and urban movements, caste and class structures, social mobility, and education, Desai argues that Indian nationalism emerged as a result of the dialectical relationship between these material conditions and the traditional social background.

State and Society after Independence

Desai critically analyzed the modernization theories widely accepted by academic institutions, arguing that they promote capitalism as a desirable value. He believed that these theories served as a useful ideological tool for the ruling class pursuing a capitalist path. Desai pointed out that the Indian state has developed a bourgeois constitution with leaders representing the capitalist class, working towards reshaping the economy and society along capitalist lines. He considered the idea of a socialistic pattern to be a deception meant to create illusions and confuse the masses.

• According to Desai, the bourgeoisie is the dominant class in India, and the country's society is based on a capitalist economy. Consequently, the prevailing culture is that of the dominant capitalist class. Desai argued that Indian capitalism emerged as a result of imperialist capitalism during its decline, leading to the bourgeoisie's regression towards religious and mystical worldviews.
• Desai claimed that the Indian bourgeoisie established a secular, bourgeois democratic state that promoted modern, scientific, technological, and liberal democratic education. However, this class and its intelligentsia also promoted and popularized old religious and idealistic philosophies, contributing to the dominant culture in India. In Desai's view, this culture plays a reactionary role by distorting the understanding of the physical universe and social world, misinterpreting the root causes of economic and social crises, and preventing the masses from finding solutions to their problems.
• Desai also discussed the agrarian struggles post-independence, suggesting that these were waged by both the emerging propertied classes and the agrarian poor, who were primarily low-caste and tribal groups. While the former fought for a larger share of development benefits, the latter struggled for survival and a better life. Desai maintained that progress could only be achieved by fundamentally transforming the exploitative capitalist system in India.
• Furthermore, Desai highlighted the repressive role of the state and the growing resistance against it. He addressed the violation of democratic rights of minorities, women, urban slum dwellers, and the media by the state. In his studies of nationalism, rural social structure, and the nature of economic and social policies in India, Desai consistently attempted to expose the contradictions and anomalies arising from the capitalist-bourgeois interlocking of interests within Indian society.

Relevance of Marxist Approach
During the 1950s and early 1960s, American structural-functionalism and British functionalism were the dominant sociological research methods in India. However, Desai continued to analyze Indian society and state through the lens of Marxist scholarship. He argued that the prevailing sociological approaches in India were primarily non-Marxist and that the Marxist approach was dismissed as dogmatic, value-laden, and deterministic.

• According to Desai, the Marxist approach is relevant because it can help study government policies, the classes embedded in the state apparatus, and India's political economy. He encourages Indian social scientists to overcome their aversion to this profound and influential approach and to study the growing body of literature on various aspects of Indian society, the class character of the state, and the path of development. Consequently, Desai emphasizes the importance of the Marxist approach in studying Indian society.
• He believes that the Marxist approach enables researchers to raise pertinent questions, conduct research in the right direction, formulate suitable hypotheses, develop appropriate concepts, adopt and combine relevant research techniques, and identify the central tendencies of transformation and their significant implications.
• Desai highlights several important aspects of the Marxist approach to studying Indian society. This approach helps understand social reality through the means of production, the techno-economic division of labor involved in operating production instruments, and social production relations.
• In analyzing post-independence Indian society, the Marxist approach focuses on the specific property relations that existed at the time of independence and are being developed by the state as an active agent of transformation. This development occurs both in terms of elaborating legal-normative notions and implementing actual policies for the development and transformation of Indian society into a prosperous, developed one. Therefore, the Marxist approach can help Indian scholars understand the type of society and its class character, the state's role, and the specificity of the development path and its implications.
• Desai contends that property relations are essential because they shape the purpose, nature, control, direction, and objectives underlying production. Additionally, property relations determine the norms regarding who will receive how much and on what basis.

Marxist analysis of Indian society

• Marxist analysis of Indian society emphasizes the importance of understanding the historical context and production relations within the society. By focusing on the property relations and the forces that preserve and prompt change, the Marxist approach provides a comprehensive framework for analyzing the social and economic transformations occurring in India. This approach acknowledges the existence of distinct institutional and normative features, such as the caste system, religion, linguistic and tribal groups, and cultural traditions, which are characteristic of Indian society. It seeks to understand their role and the nature of their transformation in relation to the overall property relations and social-economic formation.
• The Marxist approach can be applied to various aspects of Indian society, such as industrial relations, rural and urban development, and educational institutions. By studying industrial relations as capital-labour relations and considering the state's role in shaping capitalist development, this approach offers a deeper understanding of the dynamics at play. Similarly, for rural, urban, and educational developments, the Marxist approach helps explore these phenomena within the larger social framework created by the state's pursuit of capitalist development.
• Furthermore, the Marxist approach can shed light on the limitations of state-sponsored institutions generating higher knowledge products. By revealing the state's role in perpetuating capitalist development, this approach exposes the myth of the state as a welfare-neutral entity and instead presents it as a capitalist state. Overall, the Marxist analysis of Indian society provides a valuable framework for understanding the complex interplay of social, economic, and political factors driving change and development in the Indian context.

Conclusion

Akshay Ramanlal Desai's Marxist approach to the study of Indian society offers a comprehensive framework for analyzing the historical, social, economic, and political transformations that have taken place in India. By focusing on property relations and the role of the state in shaping capitalist development, Desai's approach reveals the complexities and contradictions within Indian society. This perspective allows for a deeper understanding of various aspects of Indian society, such as industrial relations, rural and urban development, and the role of education. Despite facing criticism and resistance, Desai's Marxist approach remains a valuable tool for examining the intricacies of India's societal evolution and addressing the challenges it faces in the pursuit of progress and development.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Marxist Sociology (A.R. DESAI)

Who was Akshay Ramanlal Desai, and how did he contribute to the field of sociology in India?

Akshay Ramanlal Desai (1915-1994) was a prominent Indian sociologist who consistently advocated for and applied the dialectical-historical model in his studies. He was heavily influenced by Marx, Engels, and Trotsky, and was a pioneer in incorporating a modern Marxist approach to examining Indian society.

What is the Marxist approach, and why did Desai believe it was relevant in studying Indian society?

The Marxist approach emphasizes understanding social reality through the means of production, social production relations, and property relations. Desai believed that it was relevant in studying Indian society because it could help analyze government policies, the classes embedded in the state apparatus, and India's political economy. It also helps in raising pertinent questions, formulating suitable hypotheses, and identifying central tendencies of transformation and their implications.

How did the British conquest of India transform Indian society, according to Desai's Marxist perspective?

The British conquest of India led to a significant transformation of Indian society, moving from a feudal economy to a capitalist one. This was achieved through the implementation of political and economic policies, focusing on trade, industry, and finance. The British also introduced railways, postal services, uniform law, English education, and modern industry, which brought about a qualitative change in Indian society and contributed to the rise of nationalist freedom movements and the awakening of Indian nationalism.

What was Desai's view on the Indian state and society after independence?

Desai critically analyzed the modernization theories widely accepted by academic institutions and believed that they promote capitalism as a desirable value. He argued that the Indian bourgeoisie established a secular, bourgeois democratic state that promoted modern, scientific, technological, and liberal democratic education but also promoted old religious and idealistic philosophies, contributing to the dominant culture in India. Desai maintained that progress could only be achieved by fundamentally transforming the exploitative capitalist system in India.

How can the Marxist approach be applied to various aspects of Indian society, according to Desai?

The Marxist approach can be applied to various aspects of Indian society, such as industrial relations, rural and urban development, and educational institutions. By studying these phenomena within the larger social framework created by the state's pursuit of capitalist development, the Marxist approach helps explore their role and the nature of their transformation in relation to the overall property relations and social-economic formation.