Mauryan Empire: Art, Architecture and Sculpture | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Art, Architecture, and Sculpture

After a gap of over a thousand years following the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, which was skilled in stone cutting and sculpting, there was a resurgence of sculptural art during the Mauryan period. This era marked a shift from the use of wood to stone in artistic expressions.

Mauryan art thrived primarily under royal patronage, but folk art also saw significant development during this time. To better understand Mauryan art, it can be divided into two categories:

1. Court Art and 
2. Folk Art.

Court Art

Palace:

• The 80 Pillared Hall unearthed at Kumhrar(in present-day Patna) is believed to be the location of a Mauryan Palace.
• The ancient city of Patliputra was constructed using wooden fortifications.
• Megasthenese, an ancient Greek ambassador, described Patliputra as a parallelogram-shaped city, measuring nine miles by one and a half miles. It was surrounded by a 200-yard-wide ditch and protected by a timber palisade with loopholes for archers. The palisade was reinforced with 570 towers and featured 64 gateways.

Pillars:

• The Mauryan pillars are categorized into two main types:
• Pillars attached to halls, such as those found in the 80 Pillared Hall at Kumhrar. These pillars typically lack capitals.
• Independent or free-standing pillars erected by Ashoka, which are further divided into two types:
• Pillars with animal capitals
• Pillars without capitals
• These free-standing pillars symbolize political power and authority, serving the purpose of spreading Buddhist ideology and disseminating court orders throughout the Mauryan Empire.

Distribution:

• Pillars have been discovered in Bihar at four locations:
• Kolhua (Vaishali): This site features the largest of all Mauryan pillars, adorned with a lion capital but lacking any inscriptions.
• Lauriya Areraj: This pillar does not have an animal capital but does bear an inscription. It is one of the first six pillar edicts of Ashoka, written in early Brahmi script.
• Lauriya Nandangarh: This pillar is notable for its lion capital.
• Rampurva: At this site, two pillars have been found, one with a lion capital and the other with a bull capital.
• Ashokan pillars have also been discovered in various other locations, including Meerut,Topra(Delhi),Allahabad,Sankisa,Sanchi,Sarnath,Lumbini,Nigalisagar,Basarh, and Kosam.

Features:

• The pillars are typically constructed from buff-gray sandstone quarried from the Chunar region near Banaras. Some pillars are made from spotted red and white sandstone from the Mathura region.
• Language: The majority of Ashoka's pillar edicts are written in Pali and Prakrit. However, a few are inscribed in Greek or Aramaic.
• Parts of Mauryan pillars:
• Shaft: The shaft is a long, single-piece stone or monolith that forms the base of the pillar.
• Lower capital: The top of the shaft features an inverted lotus-shaped or bell-shaped lower capital.
• Middle capital (Abacus): This part can be circular or rectangular and often has engravings on the sides, which may include animal figures or floral designs. Notable engravings, such as spoked wheels, are found on the Sarnath and Sanchi pillars.
• Capital figure: The capital figures, typically vigorous animals like bulls, lions, or elephants, are carved standing on a square or circular abacus. Examples include the four lion capital at Sanchi and Sarnath, the single bull at Rampurva, and the single elephant at Sankissa.
• Technique: The pillars are polished using agate burnishing technology. They are circular in shape, tapering towards the top, and are made from a single piece of stone (monolithic) with no ornamentation, giving them a plain appearance.
• The Sarnath Pillar was erected to commemorate the Buddha's first sermon, where he set the Wheel of Law in motion.

Similarities with Persian (Achaemenian) Pillars

• Polished Stones and Motifs: Both the Maurya and Achaemenian pillars were made from polished stones and featured similar sculpture motifs, such as the lotus.
• Proclamations: The practice of inscribing proclamations on pillars, seen in Mauryan pillars related to Buddhist teachings and court orders, has its roots in Persian pillars.
• Third Person: Inscriptions in both empires start in the third person and later shift to the first person.
• Both are made of stone.
• Both have animal figures as capitals.
• The “80 Pillar Hall” at Kumhrar shows similarities with the “Hall of 100 Pillars” built by Darius in his capital, Petropolish.
• Scholars like D.B. Spooner and Ananda K. Coomaraswamy support the idea that Mauryan pillars were prototypes of Achaemenian columns.
• Before 300 BC, such a stone tradition was absent in India, and its sudden emergence is attributed to Achaemenian influence.
• Iran and India had cultural contacts, with Darius conquering the northwestern part of India, establishing closer relations.
• Some Ashokan pillars using Kharosthi script and Aramaic language further strengthen these views.

Dissimilarities with Achaemenian Pillars

• The Capital Figure: The capital figure was absent in Mauryan pillars of the Kumhrar hall, while pillars at Persepolis featured elaborate capital figures.
• Achaemenian pillar capitals had two animals seated back to back, whereas Ashokan pillars had either four animals or one animal.
• Achaemenian pillars featured unicorns and inverted cups as capitals, which were not present in Mauryan pillars. Similarly, elephants were present in Mauryan pillars but absent in Achaemenian pillars.
• Achaemenian pillars lacked abacuses.
• The Shape and Ornamentation: The shape of the Mauryan lotus differs from that of Persian pillars.
• Pillar surfaces of most Persian pillars were fluted or ridged, while Mauryan pillars had smooth surfaces.
• Architectural Scheme: Achaemenid pillars were usually part of larger, more complex architectural schemes, whereas Ashokan pillars were simple, freestanding monuments.
• Shaft: Mauryan shafts were monolithic (made from a single piece of stone), while Persian/Achaemenian shafts were built from separate stone segments stacked on top of each other.
• Achaemenian pillars had inverted lotus-shaped bases, while Ashokan pillars lacked bases.
• Achaemenian pillars represented military victory, while Ashokan pillars symbolized victory in terms of Dhammavijaya.
• The emergence of this stone tradition is also linked to the growth of empires and imperial tastes.

Stupas

• A stupa is a burial mound covered with a hemispherical structure. These solid domes are typically constructed from bricks or stone.
• After the departure (Maha Parinirvana) of Lord Buddha, his physical remains were divided into eight parts, and stupas were built over these remains. Pre-Mauryan stupas were constructed on metal; of the eight stupas, remnants of one, the Piparwaha stupa, have been found. However, it was during Ashoka's reign that stupas were truly built. It is said that he had over 84,000 stupas constructed.

Architecture
Stupas consist of a cylindrical drum topped with a circular anda, a harmika, and a chhatra.

• Anda: A hemispherical mound symbolizing the dirt mound used to cover Buddha's remains (in many stupas, actual relics were used).
• Harmika: A square railing on top of the mound.
• Chhatra: A central pillar supporting a triple umbrella.

The vedika is a railing that surrounds the stupa, built of stone and beautifully polished. The torana are entry gateways located on all four sides.

Material Used

• The core of the stupa was made of unburnt brick, while the outer surface was made of burnt bricks covered with a thick layer of plaster. The torana were decorated with wooden sculptures. The entire structure served as a place of worship.
• The vedika and torana feature beautiful engravings in stambha and ushnisha related to folk symbols and Buddhist symbols.

Examples

• Mahastupa Sanchi by Ashoka (later developed during the Shunga period).
• Dharmarajjika stupa at Sarnath by Ashoka.

Cave Architecture

Cave architecture in ancient India began during the Mauryan period, characterized by the excavation of rock-cut caves, primarily in hard granite. These caves served various purposes, including monastic living quarters for Jain and Buddhist monks.

Historical Background:

• Cave architecture started during the Mauryan period when rocks were cut from hills.
• Despite being excavated in hard granite, the interior walls of these caves were polished to a smooth, glass-like finish.
• During this time, caves were primarily used as viharas or living quarters by Jain and Buddhist monks.
• Notably, these caves were constructed under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka and his grandson Dasarath for the Ajivakas, a religious sect.

Examples of Cave Architecture:

• In Gaya, several caves can be seen on the Nagarjuni and Barabar hills.
• Some of the most famous caves include:
• Sudama Cave
• Karna Chaupra Cave
• Lomesh Rishi Cave
• The gateways of Lomash Rishi Cave at Barabar Hills feature an ornately arched entrance.
• The shape of the caves typically includes two chambers: one circular and the other rectangular.

Sculpture in the Mauryan Period

Mauryan sculpture encompasses both court and folk art, with sculptures crafted from stone, metal, and clay. Court sculptures are characterized by their intricate stone carvings, while folk sculptures are often found in simpler, everyday forms.

Court Sculpture:

• Stone sculptures from the Mauryan period are categorized into three forms:
• Cut stone sculptures: These are made by cutting stone into specific shapes.
• Engraved sculptures: These are made by engraving images onto stone surfaces.
• Monolithic pillar sculptures: These are sculptures made on large, single blocks of stone.
• An example of cut stone sculpture is the Elephant of Dhauli in Odisha, which showcases the naturalism and skill of Mauryan stone carvers.
• Engraved stone sculptures, like the elephant on the Kalsi stone in Dehradun, also exemplify the high level of craftsmanship achieved during this period.
• Sculptures built on monolithic pillars have been discussed earlier.
• Metal sculptures are mentioned by Kautilya, indicating their presence in court art.

Folk Sculpture:

• Independently made sculptures are predominantly found in folk art.
• Clay sculptures are widely seen in folk art, reflecting everyday life and cultural practices.

Folk Art

• Folk art was created by independent artisans without any support from royal patrons.
• Examples:
  • Yaksh idol discovered in Parkham village, Mathura district, also known as Manibhadra.
  • Didarganj Yakshini Idol from Patna, displayed at the Patna Museum, made of polished sandstone.
  • A laughing boy figure from Bulandibag.
  • Two nude images of a Jain saint found in Lohanipur, Patna.
  • Tri-mouth Yaksh idol unearthed from Rajghat, Varanasi.
• These idols are crafted from gray sandstone and retain a sparkling finish due to Mauryan polishing. Their bodies are adorned with clothing and jewelry.
• Pottery from the Mauryan period is typically known as Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
• Mauryan pottery is distinguished by black paint and a highly lustrous finish, often used for luxury items.
• Kosambi and Patliputra were prominent centers for NBPW pottery.
• Thus, Mauryan art not only revitalized Indian art and culture but also established a robust foundation for its future growth.