Mesolithic Period: Hunting and Gathering | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Mesolithic (Middle Stone) Culture (8000 BC-4000 BC)

This transition was marked by the shift from the Pleistocene to the Holocene epoch, along with significant changes in climate and tool technology.

• Approximately 10,000 years ago, the Pleistocene geological era transitioned into the Holocene, bringing about substantial environmental changes. During this period, there was a rise in temperature, leading to a warmer and drier climate in some regions, while others experienced increased humidity. For example, soil analysis from sites like Birbhanpur in West Bengal indicated a trend toward greater aridity, while salt lake sediments and pollen grains from Didwana in Rajasthan suggested higher rainfall during this time.
• These climatic changes had a profound impact on human life, influencing the fauna and flora available to early humans. With the onset of the Holocene, the Mesolithic culture emerged as ice caps melted, leading to the formation of rivers due to global warming. The expansion of flora and fauna, driven by increased rainfall, provided new resources for human populations, prompting them to migrate to new areas. Despite this period witnessing an increase in population, the core economy remained primarily based on hunting and gathering.
• As the Pleistocene came to a close and the Holocene began, there were notable changes in the stone toolkits of prehistoric people. The technology for producing tools evolved, with a shift towards smaller stone tools known as microliths. While hunting and gathering remained dominant, there was a shift in hunting patterns from targeting large game to smaller game, fishing, and fowling. These changes in toolkits were likely influenced by environmental factors, and such material and ecological shifts are also reflected in rock paintings.
• One of the key features of the Indian Mesolithic phase was the spread of settlements into new ecological niches. This is generally attributed to population growth resulting from more favorable environmental conditions and technological innovations. It is worth noting that the term "epi-Palaeolithic" is sometimes used to describe the transitional stage of tools that are smaller than those typical of the upper Palaeolithic but larger than microliths.

Mesolithic Tools

• Mesolithic tools are characterized by their smaller size and superior finishing compared to Palaeolithic tools. These tools, known as microliths or small stone tools, typically range in length from 1 to 8 cm and often exhibit geometric shapes. Microliths are usually crafted from materials such as flint or chert.
• The main types of Mesolithic tools include blades, cores, points, triangles, lunates, and trapezes. In addition to these, Palaeolithic tools like scrapers, burins, and choppers continued to be used during the Mesolithic period.
• Some microliths were incorporated into larger tools such as spearheads, arrowheads, knives, sickles, harpoons, and daggers. The use of the bow and arrow for hunting became common during this period, as evidenced by numerous rock paintings.
• Bored stones, which first appeared during the upper Palaeolithic, became prevalent during the Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Chalcolithic periods. These stones are believed to have been used as weights for digging sticks and as net sinkers. Similarly, shallow querns and grinding stones were found at various sites.
• The introduction of these new technological elements significantly improved the efficiency of hunting, gathering, and processing wild plant foods.

Types of Mesolithic Tools

• Blade: A specialized flake used for cutting purposes, with a production technique known as fluting. Retouched blades are broad, thick, and long, enhanced for sharpness and effectiveness.
• Core: A cylindrical tool with a flat striking platform at one end, used as a base for making flakes or tools.
• Point: A broken blade shaped into a triangular form, used as arrowheads or spearheads.
• Triangle: Retouched on the borders, used for cutting or as arrowheads.
• Lunate: A tool resembling a segment of a circle, used for creating concave cutting edges or as arrowheads when paired.
• Trapeze: A blade-like tool used as arrowheads.

Mesolithic Sites

• The Mesolithic era in India is notable for the first major human colonization of the Ganga plains, with over two hundred Mesolithic sites identified in districts such as Allahabad, Pratapgarh, Jaunpur, Mirzapur, and Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh.
• Rajasthan: Sites like the Pachpadra basin and Sojat area are rich in microliths, with significant habitation sites like Tilwara, characterized by the presence of microliths.
• Bagor (Rajasthan): Situated on the Kothari River, Bagor is the largest and best-documented Mesolithic site in India. Excavations revealed three occupational levels, with Period I being Mesolithic, characterized by microliths made from locally available chert and quartz. Habitation areas included stone slab-paved house floors and butchering areas. The site also contained evidence of burials, animal bones, and potential grave goods. Pottery fragments may also belong to the Mesolithic phase.
• Gujarat: Mesolithic sites along rivers such as Tapti, Narbada, Mahi, and Sabamti. Langhnaj has revealed three cultural phases, including microliths, human burials, animal bones, and potsherds.
• Uttar Pradesh: Sites like Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha, and Damdamalie are rich in Mesolithic artifacts. Sarai Nahar Rai, located near an old Ganga oxbow lake, yielded geometric microliths, shells, and animal bones. Burials included individuals with grave goods. Mahadaha, also near an oxbow lake, had microliths made of various materials, with burials and associated grave goods. Damdama featured microliths, bone objects, querns, and other artifacts.
• Morhana Pahar (Uttar Pradesh) and Lekhahia (Uttar Pradesh): Rock shelters yielded blade tools, microliths, burials, and pottery.
• Baghai Khor: Another rock shelter site with pre-ceramic and ceramic microlithic phases, including extended burials.
• Chopani Mando in the Belan Valley: Occupational deposits divided into periods, with mesolithic levels marked by microliths, pottery, and other artifacts.
• Madhya Pradesh: Sites like Bhimbetka, Adamgarh hill, and Baghor II in the Vindhya range.
• Bhimbetka: Known for mesolithic paintings and tools like geometric microliths and blades, with a shift from quartz to chalcedony.
• Adamgarh hill: Microliths made of chert, chalcedony, jasper, and agate, with evidence of pottery.
• Baghor II: Mesolithic phase with tools of chert and chalcedony, and habitation evidence.
• Eastern India: Chhota Nagpur plateau, coastal plains of Orissa, Bengal delta, Brahmaputra valley, and Shillong plateau with microliths. Sites like Paisra in Bihar and Birbhanpur in West Bengal with mesolithic tools and habitation evidence.
• South India and Deccan: Microlithic sites in coastal Maharashtra, Deccan plateau, and Andhra Pradesh. Sites like Jalahalli and Kibbanhalli in Karnataka with microliths. Coastal and inland sites in Andhra Pradesh with microliths and other artifacts.
• Chronological Classification: Sites are classified as true Mesolithic based on microlith abundance and chronological sequence, while some reflect Mesolithic influence in later times.

Habitation and Living Environment in the Mesolithic Era

Habitation

• Mesolithic sites exhibit varying degrees of sedentariness, with some appearing to be permanent or semi-permanent settlements, while others were repeatedly inhabited over extended periods.
• Temporary Mesolithic camp sites are found across the subcontinent, but sites like Sarai Nahar Rai,Damdama,Mahadaha, and Chopani Mando were continuously inhabited.

Environmental Habitats of Mesolithic People

Mesolithic people lived in a variety of environments, including coastal areas,rock shelters,flat hilltops,river valleys,lakesides,sand dunes, and alluvial plains.

Sand Dunes

• In Gujarat and Marwar, numerous dunes of various sizes are found on the alluvial plain.
• Some dunes enclose shallow lakes or ponds, which were rich sources of aquatic creatures.
• The dunes were covered with thorny scrub bushes, providing habitats for various animals, making it easy for Mesolithic inhabitants to gather food.

Rock Shelters

• The Vindhya,Satpura, and Kaimur hills in Central India are abundant in caves and rock shelters, making them favored locations for Mesolithic people.
• These areas received ample rainfall, leading to the growth of thick deciduous forests that provided a variety of plants and animals.
• Some rock shelters were occupied as early as the Acheulean period.

Alluvial Plains

• Since the early Palaeolithic period, humans have preferred living near riverbanks due to the availability of water and game.
• Numerous Mesolithic sites have been discovered in alluvial plains, such as the Birbhanpur site located in the Damodar’s alluvial plain in West Bengal.

Rocky Plains

• On the Deccan Plateau, many microlithic sites are found, some on hilltops and others on flat rocky soil.
• These occupations were likely seasonal or of short duration, especially in areas without nearby rivers.

Lake Shores

• A few Mesolithic settlements were established around the shores of lakes, as observed in the Gangetic Valley of District Allahabad and Pratapgarh.
• The settlers likely relied on food supplies from the lakes and the dense primeval forests surrounding the fertile alluvial land.

Coastal Environments

• A significant number of microlithic sites have been found along coasts, such as those on Salsette Island and from the teri dune in District Tirunelveli.
• The inhabitants relied on marine resources for their food supply.

During the Mesolithic period, people developed micro-blades using the pressure technique. Sites from this era commonly feature fluted cylindrical or conical cores and thin parallel-sided blades.

Subsistence Pattern and Social Life

• The Mesolithic economy, like the Paleolithic, was primarily based on hunting, fishing, and gathering. However, evidence from some sites suggests the beginning of animal domestication. Analysis of animal bones from Mesolithic settlements indicates the presence of domesticated varieties such as cattle, sheep, and goats. The earliest evidence of animal domestication comes from sites like Adamagarh in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan.
• The Mesolithic culture set the stage for the Neolithic period, where pastoralism and agriculture began to supplement hunting and gathering as the main modes of subsistence.
• Early Mesolithic sites have revealed faunal remains of various animals, including cattle, sheep, goats, buffalo, pigs, dogs, and a range of wild animals such as bison, elephants, hippos, jackals, wolves, cheetahs, sambars, brasinghas, blackbucks, chinkaras, hog deer, hares, porcupines, mongooses, lizards, tortoises, and fish. While many species persisted throughout the Mesolithic period, the presence and absence of certain animals reflect changing climatic and environmental conditions.
• The diet of Mesolithic people included both meat and plant-based foods. Remains of fish, tortoises, hares, mongooses, porcupines, deer, and nilgai found at various sites suggest these were consumed. In addition to hunting and fishing, Mesolithic people gathered wild roots, tubers, fruits, nuts, seeds, and honey, which were significant components of their diet. It is believed that plant food was more readily available than hunted meat, with some areas rich in edible plant resources.
• Rock paintings and engravings found in Mesolithic rock shelters, such as those at Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Pratapgarh, and Mirzapur, provide insights into the social life and economic activities of the time. These artworks depict scenes of hunting, fishing, sexual union, childbirth, child-rearing, and burial ceremonies, indicating a more stable social organization compared to the Paleolithic period.
• Evidence from various Mesolithic sites suggests movement and interaction among communities. Factory sites near raw material sources likely served as meeting grounds for different groups. The similarity in mesolithic tools found north and south of the Ganga River suggests the movement of raw materials or tools across the river. Communities in the northern alluvial plain and the hill people of the Vindhyas interacted with each other, and later, mesolithic communities likely engaged with early agriculturists in their vicinity.
• Formal, ceremonial burials with grave goods suggest rituals associated with death and a belief in an afterlife. Instances of jewelry found on burial bodies indicate a custom of adorning the deceased, possibly signifying high-rank individuals within the community.

Changes in Life - Mesolithic Era

In the Mesolithic era, humans experienced significant changes in lifestyle:

From Nomadism to Sedentary Settlements

• Favorable climate, improved rainfall, warmth, and increased food security led to a shift from complete nomadism to seasonally sedentary settlements.

First Disposal of the Dead and Grave Making

• Sedentary settlements marked the beginning of various intentional methods for disposing of the dead.
• Mesolithic human burials have been discovered at sites such as Bagor in Rajasthan, Langhnaj in Gujarat, and Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.
• Occasionally, the dead were provided with grave offerings including meat, microliths, animal bones, antler ornaments, and pieces of haematite.
• Evidence from different sites suggests the prevalence of four types of burials:
• Extended burial
• Flexed (folded) burial
• Fractional (secondary) burial
• Double Burials (two individuals buried in a single grave): This likely indicates the development of family units, consisting of a male and female.

Emergence of Arts

• The Mesolithic man had a strong affinity for art, evident from the thousands of rock paintings found in rock shelters across central India.
• Paintings from the Mesolithic period have been discovered in sites like Adamgarh, Bhimbetka, Pratapgarh, and Mirzapur.
• These paintings, primarily in red and white pigments, were made from natural materials found in rocks and earth. Red pigments were derived from iron oxide, while white pigments came from limestone.
• Rock art provides insights into the social life, economic activities, and division of labor based on sex among Mesolithic people.
• Subjects of the paintings predominantly include wild animals and hunting scenes, along with depictions of human social and religious life such as sexual activity, childbirth, child-rearing, burial ceremonies, gathering plant resources, trapping animals, communal eating, dancing, and playing musical instruments.
• Animals are the most frequent subjects, with other subjects including animal-headed human figures, representations of huts or enclosures, and unusual events like chariots ambushed by armed men.

Clothing and Ornaments

• Human figures in rock shelter paintings are depicted wearing loin cloths.
• Some figures are elaborately adorned with ornaments, headgear, feathers, and waistbands. Shell, ivory, and bone beads are also evident from various sites.

Recreation

• Mesolithic individuals are depicted in joyous moods in the paintings at Bhimbetka.
• Some dances may have ritual significance, and musical instruments such as blowpipes and horns are illustrated.

Hunting Methods

• The introduction of composite tools revolutionized hunting, fishing, and food gathering.
• The Mesolithic paintings at Bhimbetka provide insights into contemporary hunting practices and the types of weapons used.
• Weapons such as bows and arrows, barbed spears, sticks, and ring stones as clubs were employed in hunting.
• Masks in the form of animal heads, like those of rhinoceros, bull, deer, and monkey, were used to disguise hunters.
• Paintings show animals being driven off cliffs and hunters carrying dead animals on wooden bars.
• An intriguing figure called the Bhimbetka Boar, depicted with a boar's body but features of other animals, showcases the creativity of Mesolithic art.
• No snakes are depicted in Mesolithic art, and an abstract painting at Jaora may symbolize the elements of air, earth, and fire.
• In Orissa, the coexistence of painting and engraving in the same rock shelter is a notable feature of rock art.

Food Production

• The core economic activities encompassed hunting, fowling, fishing, and gathering wild plant foods.
• Evidence suggests the cultivation of plants around 7000-6000 years ago near Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan, though agriculture was still in its infancy.
• The earliest domesticated animals included dogs, cattle, sheep, and goats, while the first cultivated plants were wheat and barley. The cultivation of yams and taro also occurred in this region.
• Domesticated animals were valuable not only for meat but also for milk, hides, agricultural labor, and transport.
• This emerging subsistence economy based on food production significantly impacted the evolution of human society and the environment.
• In humid regions, rice cultivation and pig domestication were achieved, as both existed in wild forms in these areas.

Pottery

• Pottery is absent at most Mesolithic sites but appears at some, such as Langhnaj in Gujarat and the Kaimur region of Mirzapur (UP).
• Pottery became associated with Mesolithic culture following the introduction of geometric tools.
• At many sites, pottery sherds are small and difficult to categorize, with shallow and deep bowls being the most common types.
• Pottery was entirely hand-made, usually coarse-grained, and rarely featured incised or impressed designs.

Structural Activity

• Evidence of structural activity, such as hutments, paved floors, and wind screens, has been found at several Mesolithic sites.
• Houses were typically circular or oval in shape, with postholes around them. Some huts had stone-paved floors.
• Paved floors and wattle constructions have been observed at sites like Bagor.
• At Bhimbetka, Mesolithic people also made floors with flat stone slabs.