NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Sociology - Introducing Western Sociologists

Q1: Why is the Enlightenment important for the development of sociology?
Ans: The Enlightenment played a crucial role in the development of sociology by fostering new ways of thinking during the late 17th and 18th centuries. Key points include:

• The Enlightenment promoted secular, scientific, and humanistic attitudes.
• It positioned humans as the central figures of the universe, emphasising rational thought.
• This shift transformed individuals into both producers and users of knowledge.
• People who did not embrace these new ways of thinking were often seen as deficient.
• The Enlightenment encouraged a view of society as a product of human interaction, making it suitable for rational analysis.

As a result, sociology emerged as a rational and scientific discipline focused on critical analysis.

Q2: How was the Industrial Revolution responsible for giving rise to sociology?
Ans: The Industrial Revolution brought significant changes to society, leading to the rise of sociology. Key developments included:

• The invention of new machines transformed labour organisations and markets.
• The factory system enabled mass production and altered how raw materials were sourced globally.
• Urbanisation led to the growth of cities, slums, and a modern form of government.

These societal shifts created a need to understand the new social dynamics, paving the way for sociology. The discipline focused on:

• Scientific analysis of social changes.
• Study of social behaviour in industrialised societies.
• Utilising empirical observation and data from state-generated social indicators.

Q3: What are the various components of a mode of production?
Ans: Karl Marx's philosophy of capitalism revolves around the concept of modes of production, which are linked to specific historical periods. The main modes of production include:

• Primitive communism
• Slavery
• Feudalism
• Capitalism

At a more detailed level, the mode of production consists of an economic base that includes:

• Productive forces: These are the resources used in production, such as land, labour, technology, and energy sources.
• Production relations: These refer to the economic relationships and forms of labour organisation involved in production.
• Property relations: These are based on the ownership of the means of production.

Q4: Why do classes come into conflict, according to Marx?
Ans: According to Karl Marx, classes are formed by groups of people with similar interests and goals. This formation is a result of a historical process, where class identities have always existed in societies. As modes of production, technology, and social relations evolve, these classes can become antagonistic towards each other, leading to class conflict.

• In a capitalist society, there is a notable conflict between the capitalists and the working class.
• These two groups are in direct opposition, which creates tension and conflict.
• For conflict to arise, both classes must be aware of their own interests and those of their rivals.
• This awareness can lead to political mobilisation and potential revolutions.

Q5: What are social facts? How do we recognise them? 
Ans: Social facts are concepts introduced by Emile Durkheim, who viewed sociology as the study of these facts. They are:

• External to individuals, meaning they exist outside of personal choices.
• Constrain behaviour, influencing how people act within society.
• General in nature, representing collective behaviours of groups.

Examples of social facts include:

• Social institutions such as law, education, and religion.
• Collective beliefs, feelings, and practices.

Durkheim demonstrated the significance of social facts through his study of suicide. While suicide may seem like a personal decision, the average suicide rate reflects broader social behaviours, making it a social fact. Thus, we can recognise social facts by observing patterns in social behaviour.

Q6: What is the difference between `mechanical' and `organic' solidarity?
Ans: Mechanical solidarity refers to social cohesion based on the similarities among individuals in a society. It is typically found in small, traditional communities where:

• Members share similar values and beliefs.
• Social roles are often the same, leading to a strong sense of belonging.
• Deviations from norms are met with strict punishments to maintain order.

In contrast, organic solidarity characterises modern, larger societies. Key features include:

• Individuals have diverse roles and responsibilities.
• Social relationships are often impersonal and based on interdependence.
• Institutions play a crucial role in maintaining social order.
• Laws are designed to restore order rather than punish, allowing for individual differences.

In summary, mechanical solidarity is about uniformity and strict adherence to norms, while organic solidarity embraces diversity and interdependence.

Q7: Show, with examples, how moral codes are indicators of social solidarity
Ans: Moral codes are indicators of social solidarity as they represent a collective agreement within a community. According to Durkheim:

• Moral codes serve as rules of conduct that reflect the shared values and norms of society.
• These codes create a sense of belonging and pressure individuals to conform to societal expectations.
• By limiting individual behaviour, moral codes help maintain predictability in social interactions.
• For example, the caste system in India illustrates how moral codes can unite individuals within the same group, reinforcing social solidarity.

Overall, moral codes are essential for understanding how societies function and maintain cohesion.

Q8: What are the basic features of bureaucracy?
Ans: The basic features of bureaucracy include:

• Functioning of Officials: Officials have specific areas of responsibility governed by rules and laws. Their duties are clearly defined, and they operate under the authority of higher officials. Appointments are based on qualifications.
• Hierarchical Ordering of Positions: Authority is structured in a top-down hierarchy, allowing higher officials to supervise lower ones.
• Reliance on Written Documents: Management relies on written records, which are preserved for reference and help in cumulative decision-making.
• Office Management: This is a specialised activity requiring trained and skilled personnel to ensure efficient operations.
• Conduct in Office: Officials must adhere to strict rules and regulations governing their behaviour, distinguishing between public and private conduct. Accountability is enforced through these regulations.

Q9: What is special or different about the kind of objectivity needed in social science?
Ans: The special kind of objectivity required in social science is known as value neutrality. According to Max Weber:

• Sociologists must understand social interactions objectively, as these involve subjective human meanings, values, feelings, and prejudices.
• They should study and record people's views and beliefsneutrallyr through empathetic understanding.
• This means describing others' feelings without judging or imposing their own beliefs.
• Social scientists are part of society, making this objective stance particularly challenging.
• Weber emphasised the need for self-discipline to maintain value neutrality while studying subjective values.

Q10: Can you identify any ideas or theories that have led to the formation of social movements in India in recent times?
Ans: Social movements in India have emerged from various theories since independence, including:

• Socialism: Aims for economic justice, particularly for backward classes. This ideal is enshrined in the Constitution of India.
• Feminism: Seeks to redefine women's roles in society, striving for equality with men. Feminist movements have challenged stereotypes and worked to secure women's rights at home and in the workplace.
• Environmentalism: Combines environmental and social issues, often overshadowed by development concerns. It has gained prominence due to challenges like climate change, especially affecting developing nations.

Many of these movements are influenced by Gandhian ideals of peaceful protest and simple living.
Key socio-environmental movements in India include:

• Chipko Movement
• Appiko Movement
• Narmada Bachao Andolan
• Silent Valley Conservation

These movements reflect the ongoing struggle for justice and equality in Indian society.

Q11: Try to find out what Marx and Weber wrote about India.
Ans: Karl Marx referred to the villages of India as 'little communities'. He believed that India was a self-sufficient society with little contact with the outside world. Key points include:

• India had its institutions and beliefs that shaped human behaviour.
• Marx opposed British rule in India and wrote extensively against it during the British Raj.

Max Weber studied India in the context of his work on the 'Sociology of Religion'. His observations included:

• He viewed Indian society as orthodox and suppressed by the caste system.
• Weber emphasised the importance of rational thinking, which he believed was hindered by the caste system.
• He argued that religion and the caste system together obstructed economic development.

Q12: Can you think of reasons why we should study the work of thinkers who died long ago? What could be some reasons to not study them?
Ans: The work of thinkers from the past is essential for several reasons:

• It helps us understand the impact of their ideas on modern society.
• For instance, to grasp the failures of the communist model, one must study Karl Marx's theories on capitalism and communism.
• Many concepts remain relevant today, such as Max Weber's idea of bureaucracy, which is crucial for the functioning of contemporary societies.
• Historical theories also shed light on past social developments. For example, Weber's work on the Protestant Ethic explains the rise of capitalism in Western societies.
• Emile Durkheim's study of suicide clarifies the differences between sociology and psychology.

However, there are reasons to be cautious about studying early thinkers:

• Some of their concepts may no longer apply to today's societies.
• Changes in social, economic, cultural, and technological contexts can render old theories obsolete.
• For example, Marx's prediction that the working class would rise against capitalism and establish socialism has not materialised as he envisioned.