NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Psychology - Meeting Life Challenges

Q1: Explain the concept of stress. Give examples from daily life.
Ans: Stress is derived from the Latin word ‘strictus’, which means tight or narrow. It can be described as the pattern of responses an organism makes to a stimulus event that disturbs equilibrium and exceeds a person’s ability to cope. All the challenges, problems, and difficult circumstances can lead to stress. It provides energy, increases human arousal, and affects performance. However, high levels of stress can produce unpleasant effects, causing performance to deteriorate. Conversely, too little stress may result in feelings of listlessness and low motivation, which can lead to slower and less efficient performance. It is important to remember that not all stress is inherently bad or destructive. Here are some examples from daily life:

• Attending parties may be stressful for someone who prefers quiet evenings at home.
• Receiving lower marks than expected can be a source of frustration and stress.
• Being forced to choose a job due to family pressure may create significant stress for the individual.

Q2: State the symptoms and sources of stress.
Ans: Symptoms of stress:
Some of us know our pattern of stress response and can gauge the depth of the problem by the nature and severity of our own symptoms or changes in behaviour. These symptoms of stress can  be physical, emotional  and behavioural. Any of the symptoms can indicate a degree of stress which, if left unresolved,  might  have  serious implications.
Sources of stress:
A wide range of events and conditions can generate stress. Among the most important of these are major stressful life events, such as death of a loved one or personal injury, the annoying frequent hassles of everyday life and traumatic events that affect our lives.

Q3: Describe the GAS model and illustrate the relevance of this model with the help of an example.
Ans: Hans Selye studied the body's response to prolonged stress by exposing animals to various stressors such as high temperatures, X-rays, and insulin injections in a laboratory setting over an extended period. He also observed patients suffering from different injuries and illnesses in hospitals. Selye noted a consistent pattern of response in all cases, which he termed the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). According to him, GAS consists of three stages:

• Alarm Reaction Stage: The presence of a noxious stimulus or stressor activates the adrenal-pituitary-cortex system, triggering the release of hormones that produce the stress response. At this point, the individual is prepared for fight or flight.
• Resistance Stage: If the stress continues, the resistance stage commences. The parasympathetic nervous system facilitates a more cautious use of the body's resources, as the organism strives to cope with the threat, often through confrontation.
• Exhaustion Stage: Prolonged exposure to the same stressor or additional stressors depletes the body's resources, leading to exhaustion. The physiological systems involved in the alarm reaction and resistance stages become ineffective, increasing susceptibility to stress-related diseases such as high blood pressure.

However, Selye's model has faced criticism for placing a limited emphasis on psychological factors in stress. Research indicates that the psychological appraisal of events plays a crucial role in determining stress levels. How individuals respond to stress is significantly influenced by their perceptions, personalities, and biological make-up.

Q4: Enumerate the different ways of coping with stress.
Ans: To manage stress, we often need to reassess our thinking and learn effective coping strategies. Different ways of coping with stress include:

• Task-oriented Strategy: This involves gathering information about the stressful situation and exploring alternative courses of action and their likely outcomes. It also includes setting priorities and taking direct action to address the stressful situation. For example, better time management or reflecting on how similar problems have been solved in the past.
• Emotion-oriented Strategy: This can involve efforts to maintain hope and manage one’s emotions. It may also include expressing feelings of anger and frustration or accepting that some things cannot be changed. For instance, reminding oneself that "it is not really happening to me" or worrying about future actions.
• Avoidance-oriented Strategy: This involves denying or minimising the seriousness of the situation. It also includes the conscious suppression of stressful thoughts in favour of self-protective thoughts. Examples include watching television, calling a friend, or seeking the company of others.

Q5: Explain the effect of stress on psychological functioning.
Ans:  The effect of stress on psychological functioning can be understood through several key dimensions:

• Emotional Effects: Individuals experiencing stress are more likely to encounter mood swings and exhibit erratic behaviour, which may alienate them from family and friends. This can initiate a vicious cycle of declining confidence, potentially leading to more serious emotional issues such as anxiety, depression, increased physical and psychological tension, and further mood fluctuations.
• Physiological Effects: When the body faces physical or psychological stress, it produces hormones like adrenaline and cortisol. These hormones cause significant changes in heart rate, blood pressure, metabolism, and physical activity. While this response can enhance function under short-term pressure, it may be detrimental in the long term. Physiological consequences include the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine, a slowdown in the digestive system, expanded air passages in the lungs, increased heart rate, and constricted blood vessels.
• Cognitive Effects: Prolonged stress can lead to mental overload, impairing decision-making abilities. High stress levels may result in poor judgments at home, in a career, or at work, leading to arguments, failure, financial losses, or even job loss. Cognitive effects of stress include poor concentration and diminished short-term memory capacity.
• Behavioural Effects: Stress can alter behaviour, leading to unhealthy eating habits, increased consumption of stimulants such as caffeine, and excessive use of substances like cigarettes, alcohol, and tranquillisers. These tranquillisers can be addictive and may cause side effects such as loss of concentration, poor coordination, and dizziness. Typical behavioural effects of stress include disrupted sleep patterns, increased absenteeism, and reduced work performance.

Q6: Describe how life skills can help meet life’s challenges.
Ans: Life skills are essential abilities that promote adaptive and positive behaviour, enabling individuals to effectively handle the demands and challenges of everyday life. Our capacity to cope with these challenges largely depends on how well we are prepared to manage and balance daily pressures, maintaining equilibrium in our lives. Fortunately, these life skills can be learned and improved upon. Key skills include:

• Assertiveness
• Time management
• Rational thinking
• Improving relationships
• Self-care
• Overcoming unhelpful habits, such as perfectionism and procrastination

By developing these skills, individuals can better meet the challenges of life. 

Q7: Discuss the factors that lead to positive health and well-being.
Ans: Various factors have been identified that facilitate the development of positive health. Health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental, social, and spiritual well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Positive health comprises the following constructs: a healthy body, high quality of personal relationships, a sense of purpose in life, self-regard, mastery of life’s tasks, and resilience to stress, trauma, and change. Specifically, factors that act as stress buffers and promote positive health include:

• Diet
• Exercise
• Positive attitude
• Positive thinking
• Social support

Q8: How does stress affect the immune system?
Ans:  Stress can cause illness by impairing the workings of the immune system. The immune system guards the body against attackers, both from within and outside. Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the links between the mind, the brain, and the immune system, studying the effects of stress on immune function. How does the immune system work? The white blood cells (leucocytes) within the immune system identify and destroy foreign bodies (antigens), such as viruses. They also lead to the production of antibodies. There are several types of white blood cells, including:

• T cells: These cells destroy invaders, while T-helper cells enhance immunological activity.
• B cells: These cells produce antibodies.
• Natural killer cells: These cells are crucial in fighting both viruses and tumours.

Stress can affect the cytotoxicity of natural killer cells, which is vital for defence against various infections and cancer. Reduced levels of natural killer cell cytotoxicity have been observed in individuals under significant stress, such as students facing important examinations, bereaved persons, and those who are severely depressed. Studies reveal that immune functioning improves in individuals receiving social support. Moreover, changes in the immune system have a more pronounced effect on health among those whose immune systems are already weakened.

Q9: Give an example of a life event which is likely to be stressful. Suggest reasons why it is likely to cause different degrees of stress to the person experiencing it.
Ans:  Changes, both big and small, sudden and gradual, affect our lives from the moment we are born. We learn to cope with small, everyday changes; however, major life events can be stressful because they disturb our routine and cause upheaval. If several of these life events, which can be planned (e.g., moving into a new house) or unpredicted (e.g., the break-up of a long-term relationship), occur within a short period, we may find it difficult to cope and become more prone to the symptoms of stress. Examples of life events that are particularly stressful include:

• Unexpected accidents or trauma
• Death of a close family member

The impact of most life events varies from person to person. Factors that contribute to different degrees of stress include:

• Age at which the event was first experienced
• Frequency of occurrence
• Duration of the stressful event
• Social support available

These factors can significantly influence how a person experiences stress during challenging life events.

Q10: Given what you know about coping strategies, what suggestions would you give to your friends to avoid stress in their everyday lives.
Ans: Coping is a dynamic, situation-specific reaction to stress. It involves a set of concrete responses to stressful situations or events, aimed at resolving the problem and reducing stress. I would suggest that my friends adopt both problem-focused and emotion-focused strategies to manage stress effectively. Problem-focused strategies target the problem itself. These behaviours are designed to gain information, alter the event, or change beliefs and commitments. Such strategies enhance a person's awareness, knowledge, and range of coping options. They can also reduce the perceived threat of the event. For example, one might say, “I made a plan of action and followed it.” In contrast, emotion-focused strategies involve psychological changes aimed at limiting emotional disruption caused by an event, with minimal effort to change the event itself. For instance, one might express, “I did some things to let it out of my system.” While both problem-focused and emotion-focused coping are essential when facing stress, research indicates that individuals tend to utilise the former more often than the latter.

Q11: Reflect on the environmental factors that have (a) a positive impact on the being, and (b) a negative effect.
Ans: (a) Environmental factors that have positive impact on the being are social and public campaign, fair governmental policies, plantation of green plants, medical policies etc.
(b) Environmental factors that have negative impact on the being are unavoidable such as air pollution, crowding, noise, heat of the summer, winter cold, etc. Another group are catastrophic
events or disasters such as fire, earthquake, floods, etc.

Q12: We know that certain lifestyle factors can cause stress and may lead to diseases like cancer and coronary heart disease, yet we are unable to change our behaviour. Explain why?
Ans: Stress can lead to unhealthy lifestyle or health damaging behaviour. Lifestyle is the overall pattern of decisions and behaviours that determine a person’s health and quality of life. Stressed individuals may be more likely to expose themselves to pathogens which are agents causing physical illness. People who are stressed have poor nutritional habits, sleep less and are likely to engage in other health risking behaviours like smoking and alcohol abuse. Such health impairing behaviours develop gradually and are accompanied by pleasant experiences temporarily. However, we tend to ignore their long-term damaging effects and underestimate the risk they pose to our lives.
Studies have revealed that health promoting behaviour like balanced diet, regular exercise, family support, etc. play an important role in good health. Adhering to a lifestyle that includes balanced low fat diet, regular exercise and continued activity along with positive thinking enhances health and longevity. The modern lifestyle of excesses in eating, drinking and the so called fast-paced good life has led to violation of basic principles of health in some of us, as to what we eat think or do with our lives.