Page 1
The Making of the National
Movement: 1870s–1947
8
In the previous chapters, we have looked at:
? The British conquest of territories, and takeover
of kingdoms
? Introduction of new laws and administrative
institutions
? Changes in the lives of peasants and tribals
? Educational changes in the nineteenth century
? Debates regarding the condition of women
? Challenges to the caste system
? Social and religious reform
? The revolt of 1857 and its aftermath
? The decline of crafts and growth of industries
On the basis of what you have read about these
issues, do you think Indians were discontented with
British rule? If so, how were different groups and classes
dissatisfied?
Fig. 1 – Police teargas
demonstrators during the
Quit India movement
Chap 8.indd 93 8/31/2022 5:03:32 PM
Reprint 2024-25
Page 2
The Making of the National
Movement: 1870s–1947
8
In the previous chapters, we have looked at:
? The British conquest of territories, and takeover
of kingdoms
? Introduction of new laws and administrative
institutions
? Changes in the lives of peasants and tribals
? Educational changes in the nineteenth century
? Debates regarding the condition of women
? Challenges to the caste system
? Social and religious reform
? The revolt of 1857 and its aftermath
? The decline of crafts and growth of industries
On the basis of what you have read about these
issues, do you think Indians were discontented with
British rule? If so, how were different groups and classes
dissatisfied?
Fig. 1 – Police teargas
demonstrators during the
Quit India movement
Chap 8.indd 93 8/31/2022 5:03:32 PM
Reprint 2024-25
94 OUR P ASTS – III
The Emergence of Nationalism
The above-mentioned developments led the people to
ask a crucial question: what is this country of India
and for whom is it meant? The answer that gradually
emer ged was: India was the people of India – all the
people irrespective of class, colour, caste, creed,
language, or gender. And the country, its resources and
systems, were meant for all of them. With this answer
came the awareness that the British were exercising
control over the resources of India and the lives of its
people, and until this control was ended, India could
not be for Indians.
This consciousness began to be clearly stated by the
political associations formed after 1850, especially those
that came into being in the 1870s and 1880s. Most of
these were led by English-educated professionals such
as lawyers. The more important ones were the Poona
Sarvajanik Sabha, the Indian Association, the Madras
Mahajan Sabha, the Bombay Presidency Association, and
of course the Indian National Congress.
Note the name, “Poona Sarvajanik Sabha”. The
literal meaning of “sarvajanik” is “of or for all the people”
(sarva = all + janik = of the people). Though many of these
associations functioned in specific parts of the country,
their goals were stated as the goals of all the people of
India, not those of any one region, community or class.
They worked with the idea that the people should be
sovereign – a moder n consciousness and a key featur e of
nationalism. In other words, they believed that the Indian
people should be empowered to take decisions regarding
their affairs.
The dissatisfaction with British rule intensified in the
1870s and 1880s. The Arms Act was passed in 1878,
disallowing Indians from possessing arms. In the same
year, the Vernacular Press Act was also enacted in an
effort to silence those who were critical of the government.
The Act allowed the government to confiscate the
assets of newspapers including their printing presses
if the newspapers published anything that was found
“objectionable”. In 1883, there was a furore over the
attempt by the government to introduce the Ilbert Bill. The
bill provided for the trial of British or European persons
by Indians, and sought equality between British and
Indian judges in the country. But when white opposition
forced the government to withdraw the bill, Indians were
enraged. The event highlighted the racial attitudes of the
British in India.
Sovereign – The capacity
to act independently
without outside
interference
Chap 8.indd 94 4/21/2022 12:30:30 PM
Reprint 2024-25
Page 3
The Making of the National
Movement: 1870s–1947
8
In the previous chapters, we have looked at:
? The British conquest of territories, and takeover
of kingdoms
? Introduction of new laws and administrative
institutions
? Changes in the lives of peasants and tribals
? Educational changes in the nineteenth century
? Debates regarding the condition of women
? Challenges to the caste system
? Social and religious reform
? The revolt of 1857 and its aftermath
? The decline of crafts and growth of industries
On the basis of what you have read about these
issues, do you think Indians were discontented with
British rule? If so, how were different groups and classes
dissatisfied?
Fig. 1 – Police teargas
demonstrators during the
Quit India movement
Chap 8.indd 93 8/31/2022 5:03:32 PM
Reprint 2024-25
94 OUR P ASTS – III
The Emergence of Nationalism
The above-mentioned developments led the people to
ask a crucial question: what is this country of India
and for whom is it meant? The answer that gradually
emer ged was: India was the people of India – all the
people irrespective of class, colour, caste, creed,
language, or gender. And the country, its resources and
systems, were meant for all of them. With this answer
came the awareness that the British were exercising
control over the resources of India and the lives of its
people, and until this control was ended, India could
not be for Indians.
This consciousness began to be clearly stated by the
political associations formed after 1850, especially those
that came into being in the 1870s and 1880s. Most of
these were led by English-educated professionals such
as lawyers. The more important ones were the Poona
Sarvajanik Sabha, the Indian Association, the Madras
Mahajan Sabha, the Bombay Presidency Association, and
of course the Indian National Congress.
Note the name, “Poona Sarvajanik Sabha”. The
literal meaning of “sarvajanik” is “of or for all the people”
(sarva = all + janik = of the people). Though many of these
associations functioned in specific parts of the country,
their goals were stated as the goals of all the people of
India, not those of any one region, community or class.
They worked with the idea that the people should be
sovereign – a moder n consciousness and a key featur e of
nationalism. In other words, they believed that the Indian
people should be empowered to take decisions regarding
their affairs.
The dissatisfaction with British rule intensified in the
1870s and 1880s. The Arms Act was passed in 1878,
disallowing Indians from possessing arms. In the same
year, the Vernacular Press Act was also enacted in an
effort to silence those who were critical of the government.
The Act allowed the government to confiscate the
assets of newspapers including their printing presses
if the newspapers published anything that was found
“objectionable”. In 1883, there was a furore over the
attempt by the government to introduce the Ilbert Bill. The
bill provided for the trial of British or European persons
by Indians, and sought equality between British and
Indian judges in the country. But when white opposition
forced the government to withdraw the bill, Indians were
enraged. The event highlighted the racial attitudes of the
British in India.
Sovereign – The capacity
to act independently
without outside
interference
Chap 8.indd 94 4/21/2022 12:30:30 PM
Reprint 2024-25
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870s –1947 95
The need for an all-India organisation of educated
Indians had been felt since 1880, but the Ilbert Bill
controversy deepened this desire. The Indian National
Congress was established when 72 delegates from all
over the country met at Bombay in December 1885. The
early leadership – Dadabhai Naor oji, Pher ozeshah Mehta,
Badruddin Tyabji, W.C. Bonnerji, Surendranath Banerji,
Romesh Chandra Dutt, S. Subramania Iyer, among
others – was lar gely fr om Bombay and Calcutta. Naor oji,
a businessman and publicist settled in London, and
for a time member of the British Parliament, guided the
younger nationalists. A retired British official, A.O. Hume,
also played a part in bringing Indians from the various
regions together.
Publicist – Someone
who publicises an idea by
circulating information,
writing reports, speaking
at meetings
A nation in the making
It has often been said that the Congress in the first twenty
years was “moderate” in its objectives and methods. During
this period, it demanded a greater voice for Indians in
the government and in administration. It wanted the
Legislative Councils to be made more representative,
given more power, and introduced in provinces where
none existed. It demanded that Indians be placed in high
positions in the government. For this purpose, it called for
civil service examinations to be held in India as well, not
just in London.
The demand for Indianisation of the administration
was part of a movement against racism, since most
important jobs at the time were monopolised by white
Activity
From the beginning the
Congress sought to
speak for, and in the
name of, all the Indian
people. Why did it
choose to do so?
?
Fig. 2 – Dadabhai Naoroji
Naoroji’s book Poverty and
Un-British Rule in India offered
a scathing criticism of the
economic impact of British rule.
Who did the Congress
seek to speak for?
A newspaper, The Indian Mirror, wrote in January 1886:
The First National Congress at Bombay … is the nucleus
of a future Parliament for our country, and will lead to
the good of inconceivable magnitude for our countrymen.
Badruddin Tyabji addressed the Congress as President
in 1887 thus:
this Congress is composed of the representatives, not
of any one class or community of India, but of all the
different communities of India.
Source 1
Chap 8.indd 95 4/21/2022 12:30:33 PM
Reprint 2024-25
Page 4
The Making of the National
Movement: 1870s–1947
8
In the previous chapters, we have looked at:
? The British conquest of territories, and takeover
of kingdoms
? Introduction of new laws and administrative
institutions
? Changes in the lives of peasants and tribals
? Educational changes in the nineteenth century
? Debates regarding the condition of women
? Challenges to the caste system
? Social and religious reform
? The revolt of 1857 and its aftermath
? The decline of crafts and growth of industries
On the basis of what you have read about these
issues, do you think Indians were discontented with
British rule? If so, how were different groups and classes
dissatisfied?
Fig. 1 – Police teargas
demonstrators during the
Quit India movement
Chap 8.indd 93 8/31/2022 5:03:32 PM
Reprint 2024-25
94 OUR P ASTS – III
The Emergence of Nationalism
The above-mentioned developments led the people to
ask a crucial question: what is this country of India
and for whom is it meant? The answer that gradually
emer ged was: India was the people of India – all the
people irrespective of class, colour, caste, creed,
language, or gender. And the country, its resources and
systems, were meant for all of them. With this answer
came the awareness that the British were exercising
control over the resources of India and the lives of its
people, and until this control was ended, India could
not be for Indians.
This consciousness began to be clearly stated by the
political associations formed after 1850, especially those
that came into being in the 1870s and 1880s. Most of
these were led by English-educated professionals such
as lawyers. The more important ones were the Poona
Sarvajanik Sabha, the Indian Association, the Madras
Mahajan Sabha, the Bombay Presidency Association, and
of course the Indian National Congress.
Note the name, “Poona Sarvajanik Sabha”. The
literal meaning of “sarvajanik” is “of or for all the people”
(sarva = all + janik = of the people). Though many of these
associations functioned in specific parts of the country,
their goals were stated as the goals of all the people of
India, not those of any one region, community or class.
They worked with the idea that the people should be
sovereign – a moder n consciousness and a key featur e of
nationalism. In other words, they believed that the Indian
people should be empowered to take decisions regarding
their affairs.
The dissatisfaction with British rule intensified in the
1870s and 1880s. The Arms Act was passed in 1878,
disallowing Indians from possessing arms. In the same
year, the Vernacular Press Act was also enacted in an
effort to silence those who were critical of the government.
The Act allowed the government to confiscate the
assets of newspapers including their printing presses
if the newspapers published anything that was found
“objectionable”. In 1883, there was a furore over the
attempt by the government to introduce the Ilbert Bill. The
bill provided for the trial of British or European persons
by Indians, and sought equality between British and
Indian judges in the country. But when white opposition
forced the government to withdraw the bill, Indians were
enraged. The event highlighted the racial attitudes of the
British in India.
Sovereign – The capacity
to act independently
without outside
interference
Chap 8.indd 94 4/21/2022 12:30:30 PM
Reprint 2024-25
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870s –1947 95
The need for an all-India organisation of educated
Indians had been felt since 1880, but the Ilbert Bill
controversy deepened this desire. The Indian National
Congress was established when 72 delegates from all
over the country met at Bombay in December 1885. The
early leadership – Dadabhai Naor oji, Pher ozeshah Mehta,
Badruddin Tyabji, W.C. Bonnerji, Surendranath Banerji,
Romesh Chandra Dutt, S. Subramania Iyer, among
others – was lar gely fr om Bombay and Calcutta. Naor oji,
a businessman and publicist settled in London, and
for a time member of the British Parliament, guided the
younger nationalists. A retired British official, A.O. Hume,
also played a part in bringing Indians from the various
regions together.
Publicist – Someone
who publicises an idea by
circulating information,
writing reports, speaking
at meetings
A nation in the making
It has often been said that the Congress in the first twenty
years was “moderate” in its objectives and methods. During
this period, it demanded a greater voice for Indians in
the government and in administration. It wanted the
Legislative Councils to be made more representative,
given more power, and introduced in provinces where
none existed. It demanded that Indians be placed in high
positions in the government. For this purpose, it called for
civil service examinations to be held in India as well, not
just in London.
The demand for Indianisation of the administration
was part of a movement against racism, since most
important jobs at the time were monopolised by white
Activity
From the beginning the
Congress sought to
speak for, and in the
name of, all the Indian
people. Why did it
choose to do so?
?
Fig. 2 – Dadabhai Naoroji
Naoroji’s book Poverty and
Un-British Rule in India offered
a scathing criticism of the
economic impact of British rule.
Who did the Congress
seek to speak for?
A newspaper, The Indian Mirror, wrote in January 1886:
The First National Congress at Bombay … is the nucleus
of a future Parliament for our country, and will lead to
the good of inconceivable magnitude for our countrymen.
Badruddin Tyabji addressed the Congress as President
in 1887 thus:
this Congress is composed of the representatives, not
of any one class or community of India, but of all the
different communities of India.
Source 1
Chap 8.indd 95 4/21/2022 12:30:33 PM
Reprint 2024-25
96 OUR P ASTS – III
officials, and the British generally assumed that Indians
could not be given positions of responsibility. Since
British officers were sending a major part of their large
salaries home, Indianisation, it was hoped, would also
reduce the drain of wealth to England. Other demands
included the separation of the judiciary from the
executive, the repeal of the Arms Act and the freedom
of speech and expression.
The early Congress also raised a number of economic
issues. It declared that British rule had led to poverty and
famines: increase in the land revenue had impoverished
peasants and zamindars, and exports of grains to Eur ope
had created food shortages. The Congress demanded
reduction of revenue, cut in military expenditure, and
more funds for irrigation. It passed many resolutions on
the salt tax, treatment of Indian labourers abroad, and
t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f f o r e s t d w e l l e r s – c a u s e d b y a n i n t e r f e r i n g
forest administration. All this shows that despite being
a body of the educated elite, the Congress did not
talk only on behalf of pr ofessional gr oups, zamindars
or industrialists.
The Moderate leaders wanted to develop public
awareness about the unjust nature of British rule.
They published newspapers, wrote articles, and showed
how British rule was leading to the economic ruin
of the country. They criticised British rule in their
speeches and sent representatives to different parts of
the country to mobilise public opinion. They felt that
the British had respect for the ideals of freedom and
justice, and so they would accept the just demands of
Indians. What was necessary, therefore, was to express
these demands, and make the government aware of the
feelings of Indians.
“Freedom is our birthright”
By the 1890s, many Indians began to raise questions
about the political style of the Congress. In Bengal,
Maharashtra and Punjab, leaders such as Bepin
Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat
Rai were beginning to explore more radical objectives
and methods. They criticised the Moderates for their
“politics of prayers”, and emphasised the importance
of self-reliance and constructive work. They argued
that people must rely on their own strength, not on the
“good” intentions of the government; people must fight
for swaraj. Tilak raised the slogan, “Freedom is my
birthright and I shall have it!”
In pursuit of gold
This is what a Moderate
leader, Dinshaw Wacha,
wrote to Naoroji in 1887:
Pherozeshah is
nowadays too busy
with his personal work
… They are already
rich enough …
Mr. Telang too
remains busy. I
wonder how if all
remain busy in the
pursuit of gold can
the progress of the
country be advanced?
Repeal – T o undo law; to
officially end the validity
of something such as a
law
Source 2
Activity
What problems regarding
the early Congress does
this comment highlight?
?
Chap 8.indd 96 4/21/2022 12:30:34 PM
Reprint 2024-25
Page 5
The Making of the National
Movement: 1870s–1947
8
In the previous chapters, we have looked at:
? The British conquest of territories, and takeover
of kingdoms
? Introduction of new laws and administrative
institutions
? Changes in the lives of peasants and tribals
? Educational changes in the nineteenth century
? Debates regarding the condition of women
? Challenges to the caste system
? Social and religious reform
? The revolt of 1857 and its aftermath
? The decline of crafts and growth of industries
On the basis of what you have read about these
issues, do you think Indians were discontented with
British rule? If so, how were different groups and classes
dissatisfied?
Fig. 1 – Police teargas
demonstrators during the
Quit India movement
Chap 8.indd 93 8/31/2022 5:03:32 PM
Reprint 2024-25
94 OUR P ASTS – III
The Emergence of Nationalism
The above-mentioned developments led the people to
ask a crucial question: what is this country of India
and for whom is it meant? The answer that gradually
emer ged was: India was the people of India – all the
people irrespective of class, colour, caste, creed,
language, or gender. And the country, its resources and
systems, were meant for all of them. With this answer
came the awareness that the British were exercising
control over the resources of India and the lives of its
people, and until this control was ended, India could
not be for Indians.
This consciousness began to be clearly stated by the
political associations formed after 1850, especially those
that came into being in the 1870s and 1880s. Most of
these were led by English-educated professionals such
as lawyers. The more important ones were the Poona
Sarvajanik Sabha, the Indian Association, the Madras
Mahajan Sabha, the Bombay Presidency Association, and
of course the Indian National Congress.
Note the name, “Poona Sarvajanik Sabha”. The
literal meaning of “sarvajanik” is “of or for all the people”
(sarva = all + janik = of the people). Though many of these
associations functioned in specific parts of the country,
their goals were stated as the goals of all the people of
India, not those of any one region, community or class.
They worked with the idea that the people should be
sovereign – a moder n consciousness and a key featur e of
nationalism. In other words, they believed that the Indian
people should be empowered to take decisions regarding
their affairs.
The dissatisfaction with British rule intensified in the
1870s and 1880s. The Arms Act was passed in 1878,
disallowing Indians from possessing arms. In the same
year, the Vernacular Press Act was also enacted in an
effort to silence those who were critical of the government.
The Act allowed the government to confiscate the
assets of newspapers including their printing presses
if the newspapers published anything that was found
“objectionable”. In 1883, there was a furore over the
attempt by the government to introduce the Ilbert Bill. The
bill provided for the trial of British or European persons
by Indians, and sought equality between British and
Indian judges in the country. But when white opposition
forced the government to withdraw the bill, Indians were
enraged. The event highlighted the racial attitudes of the
British in India.
Sovereign – The capacity
to act independently
without outside
interference
Chap 8.indd 94 4/21/2022 12:30:30 PM
Reprint 2024-25
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870s –1947 95
The need for an all-India organisation of educated
Indians had been felt since 1880, but the Ilbert Bill
controversy deepened this desire. The Indian National
Congress was established when 72 delegates from all
over the country met at Bombay in December 1885. The
early leadership – Dadabhai Naor oji, Pher ozeshah Mehta,
Badruddin Tyabji, W.C. Bonnerji, Surendranath Banerji,
Romesh Chandra Dutt, S. Subramania Iyer, among
others – was lar gely fr om Bombay and Calcutta. Naor oji,
a businessman and publicist settled in London, and
for a time member of the British Parliament, guided the
younger nationalists. A retired British official, A.O. Hume,
also played a part in bringing Indians from the various
regions together.
Publicist – Someone
who publicises an idea by
circulating information,
writing reports, speaking
at meetings
A nation in the making
It has often been said that the Congress in the first twenty
years was “moderate” in its objectives and methods. During
this period, it demanded a greater voice for Indians in
the government and in administration. It wanted the
Legislative Councils to be made more representative,
given more power, and introduced in provinces where
none existed. It demanded that Indians be placed in high
positions in the government. For this purpose, it called for
civil service examinations to be held in India as well, not
just in London.
The demand for Indianisation of the administration
was part of a movement against racism, since most
important jobs at the time were monopolised by white
Activity
From the beginning the
Congress sought to
speak for, and in the
name of, all the Indian
people. Why did it
choose to do so?
?
Fig. 2 – Dadabhai Naoroji
Naoroji’s book Poverty and
Un-British Rule in India offered
a scathing criticism of the
economic impact of British rule.
Who did the Congress
seek to speak for?
A newspaper, The Indian Mirror, wrote in January 1886:
The First National Congress at Bombay … is the nucleus
of a future Parliament for our country, and will lead to
the good of inconceivable magnitude for our countrymen.
Badruddin Tyabji addressed the Congress as President
in 1887 thus:
this Congress is composed of the representatives, not
of any one class or community of India, but of all the
different communities of India.
Source 1
Chap 8.indd 95 4/21/2022 12:30:33 PM
Reprint 2024-25
96 OUR P ASTS – III
officials, and the British generally assumed that Indians
could not be given positions of responsibility. Since
British officers were sending a major part of their large
salaries home, Indianisation, it was hoped, would also
reduce the drain of wealth to England. Other demands
included the separation of the judiciary from the
executive, the repeal of the Arms Act and the freedom
of speech and expression.
The early Congress also raised a number of economic
issues. It declared that British rule had led to poverty and
famines: increase in the land revenue had impoverished
peasants and zamindars, and exports of grains to Eur ope
had created food shortages. The Congress demanded
reduction of revenue, cut in military expenditure, and
more funds for irrigation. It passed many resolutions on
the salt tax, treatment of Indian labourers abroad, and
t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f f o r e s t d w e l l e r s – c a u s e d b y a n i n t e r f e r i n g
forest administration. All this shows that despite being
a body of the educated elite, the Congress did not
talk only on behalf of pr ofessional gr oups, zamindars
or industrialists.
The Moderate leaders wanted to develop public
awareness about the unjust nature of British rule.
They published newspapers, wrote articles, and showed
how British rule was leading to the economic ruin
of the country. They criticised British rule in their
speeches and sent representatives to different parts of
the country to mobilise public opinion. They felt that
the British had respect for the ideals of freedom and
justice, and so they would accept the just demands of
Indians. What was necessary, therefore, was to express
these demands, and make the government aware of the
feelings of Indians.
“Freedom is our birthright”
By the 1890s, many Indians began to raise questions
about the political style of the Congress. In Bengal,
Maharashtra and Punjab, leaders such as Bepin
Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat
Rai were beginning to explore more radical objectives
and methods. They criticised the Moderates for their
“politics of prayers”, and emphasised the importance
of self-reliance and constructive work. They argued
that people must rely on their own strength, not on the
“good” intentions of the government; people must fight
for swaraj. Tilak raised the slogan, “Freedom is my
birthright and I shall have it!”
In pursuit of gold
This is what a Moderate
leader, Dinshaw Wacha,
wrote to Naoroji in 1887:
Pherozeshah is
nowadays too busy
with his personal work
… They are already
rich enough …
Mr. Telang too
remains busy. I
wonder how if all
remain busy in the
pursuit of gold can
the progress of the
country be advanced?
Repeal – T o undo law; to
officially end the validity
of something such as a
law
Source 2
Activity
What problems regarding
the early Congress does
this comment highlight?
?
Chap 8.indd 96 4/21/2022 12:30:34 PM
Reprint 2024-25
THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT: 1870s –1947 97
In 1905, Viceroy Curzon partitioned
Bengal. At that time Bengal was the biggest
province of British India and included
Bihar and parts of Orissa. The British
argued for dividing Bengal for reasons of
administrative convenience. But what did
“administrative convenience” mean? Whose
“convenience” did it represent? Clearly, it
was closely tied to the interests of British
officials and businessmen. Even so, instead
of removing the non-Bengali areas from the
province, the government separated East
Bengal and merged it with Assam. Perhaps
the main British motives were to curtail the
influence of Bengali politicians and to split the
Bengali people.
The partition of Bengal infuriated people
all over India. All sections of the Congr ess –
the Moderates and the Radicals, as they may
be called – opposed it. Large public meetings
and demonstrations were organised and
novel methods of mass protest developed. The struggle
that unfolded came to be known as the Swadeshi
movement, strongest in Bengal but with echoes elsewhere
too – in deltaic Andhra for instance, it was known as the
Vandemataram Movement.
Fig. 3 – Balgangadhar Tilak
Notice the name of the newspaper
that lies on the table. Kesari,
a Marathi newspaper edited
by Tilak, became one of the
strongest critics of British rule.
Fig. 4 – Thousands joined the demonstrations during the Swadeshi movement
Chap 8.indd 97 4/21/2022 12:30:38 PM
Reprint 2024-25
Read More