Nationalism: State-building in Germany | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Background

• Before 1806, German-speaking Central Europe was made up of over 300 political entities, most of which were part of the Holy Roman Empire.
• The Holy Roman Empire, led by the Habsburg dynasty, was criticized for being neither holy, nor Roman, nor a true empire.
• Although Germany was nominally united under an imperial crown for almost a thousand years, it was actually composed of about 300 individual principalities and city-states that operated largely independently.
• These entities varied in size and governance, ranging from small territories of princely family branches to larger territories like the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Prussia.
• The governance of these regions also varied and included free imperial cities, ecclesiastical territories, and dynastic states.

Contribution of Napoleon to German Unification

Territorial Reorganization by Napoleon:

• Napoleon reorganized the German state system through extensive territorial redistribution.
• He abolished many free sovereign German cities and simplified the map of Germany by reducing over 200 independent states to 39 states.
• Although Napoleon aimed to create a French satellite in Germany, his actions indirectly advanced the cause of German unity and nationality.

Abolition of the Holy Roman Empire by Napoleon:

• In 1806, after defeating Prussia, Napoleon abolished the Holy Roman Empire and replaced it with a Confederation of States dependent on France.
• The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire marked a significant break with the past and allowed for the conception of a Germany without Austrian dominance.
• The Habsburg House of Austria relinquished its claims to rule Germany, paving the way for a new German identity.

Reforms of Napoleon:

• Napoleonic reforms such as religious toleration, freedom of press, and equality before the law increased the desire for self-governance among the German people.

Rise of German Nationalism:

• The shared experience of German-speaking Central Europe under French rule fostered a sense of common purpose to expel the French and regain control over their lands.
• The War of Liberation against Napoleon was driven by a popular uprising to free Germany from French domination, differing from previous wars waged by Germany.
• Napoleon’s failed invasion of Russia in 1812 disillusioned many Germans, including princes and peasants, and encouraged the vision of a Central Europe free from French influence.
• The critical role of Prussia in defeating Napoleon at the battles of Waterloo and Leipzig became a source of pride and enthusiasm for Germans, contributing to the unification movement.

Rise of German Dualism After the Congress of Vienna

Introduction:

• Following Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna aimed to establish a new political-diplomatic system in Europe centered around the balance of power.
• This involved reorganizing Europe into various spheres of influence, sometimes suppressing the national aspirations of different groups, including Germans and Italians.

Formation of the German Confederation:

• Prussia was enlarged, and the 38 states formed from Napoleon's reorganized territories in 1803 were confederated under the Austrian Empire's influence.
• The Congress established a loose German Confederation (1815–1866) led by Austria.
• Austria held the presidency of this Confederation's assembly, called the Bundestag, which met in Frankfurt.
• Prussia served as the Vice President of the Bundestag, leading to a dualism between Austria and Prussia.

Weaknesses of the Bundestag:

• The Bundestag had two major weaknesses:
• Representation: Its members represented German princes, not the general populace.
• Enforcement: It lacked the authority to enforce its decisions.
• Austrian dominance in the Confederation did not account for Prussia's rise as a powerful state in the 18th century.

The Carlsbad Decrees (1819):

• The Carlsbad Decrees were imposed by the Bundestag on September 20, 1819, in response to rising liberal and nationalistic movements within the German Confederation.
• Austrian foreign minister Metternich called for these decrees following the assassination of conservative dramatist August Kotzebue by radical student Karl Sand.
• The decrees aimed to suppress liberal activities by enforcing strict censorship, disbanding nationalist student clubs, and establishing a central investigative commission.
• Although the Carlsbad Decrees were initially effective in curtailing liberal activities, they ultimately failed to stifle German nationalism and liberal developments in the long run.

Role of the Customs Union (Zollverein) in Unification under Prussia:

• Initially proposed as a Prussian customs union in 1818, the Zollverein, or German Customs Union, was formally established on January 1, 1834, through the Zollverein treaties of 1833.
• The Zollverein linked various Prussian and German princely territories, promoting economic unification among German states.
• It reduced protectionist barriers, facilitating the movement of raw materials and finished goods, which was crucial for emerging industrial centers in the Rhineland, Saar, and Ruhr valleys.
• Prussia played a central role in creating the customs union, while Austria was excluded due to its protected industry and Metternich's opposition.
• The Zollverein laid the groundwork for German unification under Prussian leadership, contributing to Prussia's economic dominance and eventual political unity in Germany in 1871.
• Some historians argue that the Zollverein did not significantly enhance Prussia's political influence or economic preeminence, as smaller states joined for fiscal reasons and remained suspicious of Prussia.

Revolution of 1830 in Germany

• A successful revolution erupted in France in July 1830 against the autocratic rule of Charles X. The news of this revolution greatly inspired the patriots of Germany, who had been harshly suppressed by Metternich with the aid of the Carlsbad Decrees.
• With the exception of Austria and Prussia, the rulers of nearly all German states were compelled to introduce liberal constitutions in their respective territories. Charles, the King of Brunswick, was removed from his throne, and the revolutionaries instituted a new and liberal constitution in his place. 
• Following Brunswick's example, other small states also adopted similar changes. The southern states of Germany were inclined to establish a military league to restore peace in the country and rejected Austrian leadership. It became evident that the administration of the German states was shifting to the military league, replacing the Federal Diet. 
• While the Empire of Austria remained unaffected by the revolutionary wave, Metternich's influence and power were at their peak. He employed strict and repressive measures to quell the revolutions across various German states. The Carlsbad Decrees were reaffirmed in 1832, and their provisions were strictly enforced everywhere. Restrictions on public meetings, speech, press, universities, and colleges were further intensified.
• In April 1833, some revolutionaries launched an attack on the Federal Diet. Although the attack was ruthlessly repelled with the assistance of the army, it became clear that the people of Germany had lost faith in the functioning of the Federal Diet. Overall, the effects of the July Revolution of 1830 were nullified in the German states. Metternich's influence remained unchallenged in Germany until 1848.

The Hambach Festival, 1832:

• In May 1832, at Hambach Castle in the Palatinate, a gathering of 30,000 liberals and radicals convened to demand reforms, including national unification, representative government, and popular sovereignty in Germany. The flags of black, red, and gold, which would later become the German national colors, were prominently displayed.

Revolutions of 1848-49 in Germany (March Revolution):

• The Revolutions of 1848 in Germany were initially part of a broader wave of revolutions across Europe. They drew inspiration from the street demonstrations of workers and artisans in Paris in February 1848, which led to the abdication of King Louis Philippe of France.

Prelude to the March Revolution:

• A popular assembly organized in Mannheim on February 27, 1848, by Democrats from Baden, set the stage for the March Revolution.
• During this assembly, the March demands were formulated, which included fundamental claims such as freedom of the press, trial by jury, and the creation of a German parliament.

Leading Forces:

• The revolutionary March movement was primarily led by representatives of the liberal bourgeoisie. From Baden, where compliance with the March demands was initiated through a mass rally in front of the parliament on March 1, the movement spread throughout Germany.

Monarchical Response:

• Many monarchs, surprised and overthrown by the strength of the movement, declared their willingness to implement most of the basic democratic principles demanded by the populace.
• New governments, dominated by moderately liberal representatives of the bourgeoisie and advocating programs of liberal reform, were established almost everywhere by mid-March.

Prussian Response:

• Frederick William IV of Prussia, frightened by the strength of the movement, granted a constitution. His example was followed by Saxony, Hanover, and Bavaria. In Bavaria, these events led to the abdication of the King.

Vienna Uprising

• During this period, Vienna also rose in revolt. On March 13, 1848, a student-organized demonstration in Vienna escalated into a storm on the house of the estates, with the population pressing for political change and responding to the opposition's call in the Hungarian parliament to resist Metternich's rule. Armed resistance was mounted against the troops, and after the uprising of workers in the suburbs and the ultimatum from the liberal bourgeoisie, the Habsburg state leadership decided to concede. This led to Metternich's resignation as chief minister to Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria and his subsequent exile in Britain.

The Frankfurt Parliament and Triumph of Reaction

• The Frankfurt National Assembly attempted but ultimately failed to create a united German state during the liberal Revolutions of 1848. In this period, William IV of Prussia, yielding to the liberal and nationalist sentiments of the time, promised to lead the national movement for a united Germany, which generated great enthusiasm among German liberals.
• The liberals summoned a national preliminary parliament called the Preliminary Parliament, which convened in March 1848 in Frankfurt. This assembly called for the election of a national assembly, which was duly conducted.

Frankfurt National Assembly:

The Frankfurt National Assembly, elected by universal suffrage, convened in Frankfurt on May 18, 1848. Moderate liberals held a majority in the assembly, and Heinrich Gagern was elected president. The assembly's task was to:

• Draft a constitution for a united Germany to replace the constitution of the German Bund.
• Create a constitutional monarchy characterized by a unified Germany.

The assembly spent considerable time debating various plans for a unified Germany while also addressing immediate practical issues such as executive power and Germany's territorial extent. The assembly attempted to manage a war with Denmark concerning the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, but Prussia, disregarding the assembly, concluded the war abruptly in August.

Shift in Prussian Leadership:

• By this time, Frederick William IV of Prussia had lost patience with the liberals and increasingly leaned toward ultraconservative advisers. In Austria, Emperor Ferdinand had abdicated in favor of his nephew Francis Joseph, who also relied on conservative ministers.

Constitution Adoption:

• On March 28, 1849, the Frankfurt National Assembly adopted a proposed federal constitution for the German states, excluding Austria. This constitution provided for universal suffrage, parliamentary government, and a hereditary emperor. It aimed for a unified monetary and customs system while maintaining the internal autonomy of the constituent German states.

Election of an Emperor:

During the election of an emperor in the national assembly, the majority favored Frederick William of Prussia. On April 3, a deputation from the assembly offered him the crown. However, he refused the offer for several reasons:

• He believed the crown should be offered by the other German princes rather than a revolutionary assembly.
• He feared it might lead to conflict with Austria.
• He perceived the crown as a “crown of shame.”

Rejection of the Constitution:

• Prussia and many other states rejected the proposed constitution, leading to the collapse of the entire scheme and the destruction of the German Revolution.

Collapse of the Assembly:

• Without the support of Prussia or Austria, the Frankfurt National Assembly could not survive. By May, Gagern's ministry had disbanded, and most deputies were ordered home by their respective state governments. Extreme liberals attempted revolts, but these were suppressed by Prussian troops. The Frankfurt National Assembly and the revolutions that inspired it came to an end.

Prussian Constitution and the Diet:

• Prussia dismissed the Diet, which was working on a constitution. However, the Prussian King voluntarily provided a constitution, which, although not democratic, ensured the Prussian people a share in the government.

Narrow Nationalism and the Collapse of the German Revolution:
The Frankfurt Parliament was not a homogeneous group and was marked by diverse ideologies. Debates within the parliament consumed time, with discussions on plans for a united Germany and fundamental rights conducted in an academic manner. The parliament was broadly divided into three camps:

• Democratic left: extreme and moderate left.
• Liberal centre: left and right centre.
• Conservative right: Protestants and conservatives.

Due to this factionalism, no concrete decisions were made, and enthusiasm waned as reactionary forces gained strength.

• Austria announced a new constitution on March 4, 1849, mandating that either the entire Austrian Empire or none of it would enter the new Germany. This was a setback for liberals hoping for a Germany including Austria or its German-speaking provinces.
• The initiative shifted to those favoring a Germany excluding Austria, under Prussian leadership. This narrow nationalism in the Frankfurt Parliament led to the collapse of the German Revolution.

Problems of Spheres of Influence: The Erfurt Union and the Convention of Olmutz:

• After the disbandment of the Frankfurt Parliament, Frederick William IV supported the establishment of the Erfurt Union, a federation of German states excluding Austria, with himself as President. This union aimed to diminish Austrian influence over the German states.
• Austrian influence was reasserted when Austria, having recovered from revolutionary upheavals, refused to be excluded from Germany. This led to the Prussian king abandoning the Erfurt Union during the Convention of Olmutz in 1850. The Prussian agreement to restore the German Confederation of 1815 under Austrian leadership marked the end of plans for German unity and reestablished Austria’s influence in Germany.

Implications of the Erfurt Union and the Convention of Olmutz:

• These events, although seemingly minor, highlighted the issues of influence among German states. The question of German unification shifted from whether it would occur to when it would happen. Unification posed a diplomatic challenge, as it would disrupt the spheres of influence system established in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna.
• The Congress aimed to balance Europe through the fragmentation of German states, ensuring that each of the four great powers—Great Britain, France, Russia, and Austria—had a geographic sphere of influence. A unified Germany would overturn this system, raising questions about the identity and borders of the German nation, as well as its leadership and defense.
• Proposals for unification included the Kleindeutschland (Lesser Germany) solution, led by Prussia and excluding Austria, and the Grossdeutschland (Greater Germany) solution, led by Austria.

Positive Outcomes of the 1848 Revolution Failure for German Unification:
The failure of the 1848 Revolution revealed the limitations of popular movements in achieving German unification without the guidance of the princes. Nationalists exposed the inability of Austria and the German princes to support nationalism, as it would threaten their positions.
The collapse of the Frankfurt Parliament underscored that a new Germany could not be established without direction from the princes. The prerequisites for German unification became clear:

• Dissolution of the German Confederation.
• Prevention of Austrian interference in German affairs.
• Adjustment of relations with the princes.

Prussia emerged as the natural leader of Germany due to its historical role in resisting Napoleon, its territorial acquisitions, and its leadership of the Zollverein. Unlike Austria, Prussia offered a constitution and a parliament, fostering Liberal hopes.

Favorable International Situations for Prussia:

• International circumstances favored Prussia, as the Crimean War weakened Russia, a champion of absolutism, and brought Russia into conflict with Austria. The rise of Bonapartism in France under Napoleon III was more sympathetic to national movements, and Prussia capitalized on this sympathy for national causes.

Wilhelm I and Prussian Policy:

• King Frederick William IV suffered a stroke in 1857, leading to his brother William becoming Prince Regent and later King of Prussia. Unlike his brother, William I had his own ideas, which, although not brilliant, were solid and pragmatic. He believed in autocracy and the mission of Prussia, selecting competent servants for the state and trusting them completely.

Army Reform Struggle:

• William I, a true Hohenzollern, believed Prussia’s destiny depended on its army. He sought to reorganize the army and appointed Von Moltke as chief of the Prussian General Staff and Von Roon as Minister of War. Both were conservative, favoring autocracy and militarism.
• This reorganization of authority within the Prussian military establishment had significant implications. Roon and William began reforming the Prussian army, while Moltke streamlined operational command and redesigned Prussia’s strategic defense.

Conflict with the Diet over Army Reform:

• Prussian army reforms, particularly their funding, sparked a constitutional crisis in 1860, as both the parliament (Diet) and William, through his minister of war, wanted control over the military budget. The liberal-dominated Diet insisted on constitutional reform before military reform.
• This deadlock led to a constitutional conflict over whether the king or the Diet held ultimate authority. The King’s ministers failed to persuade legislators to pass the budget, and the King was unwilling to compromise.
• In 1862, King Wilhelm I appointed Otto von Bismarck as Minister-President of Prussia. This decision proved pivotal. Bismarck resolved the crisis in favor of the war minister. He intensified his conflict with the legislators

Bismarck: A Key Figure in German Unification

Early Career:

• Bismarck was born in 1815 into the old landed aristocracy of Prussia.
• During his university years, he was known for his high spirits and disregard for discipline.
• Initially, he joined the Prussian Civil Service on the judicial side but soon resigned to manage his family estate.
• In 1847, he entered politics as a member of the United Prussian Diet, summoned by Frederick William IV.

Attitude Towards Movements:

• Bismarck was anti-revolutionary, opposing democracy and liberalism while defending the Prussian monarchy.
• He resisted any plans that would merge Prussia with Germany or compromise the monarchy's authority.
• He supported the King's refusal of the Frankfort crown and approved of Austria's victory at Olmutz.
• His ultra-royalist stance earned him a position as Prussian representative at the Federal Diet in Frankfurt in 1851.

Bismarck at Frankfurt:

• During his 8 years as a Prussian representative at the Federal Diet, Bismarck studied diplomacy, gained insight into Prussia's challenges, and developed a strong anti-Austrian sentiment.
• He concluded that Germany was too small for both Austria and Prussia and that the key issue was the expulsion of Austria and the attitude of smaller German states.

Bismarck as Ambassador to Russia and France:

• Bismarck's bold approach eventually led to his transfer from Berlin to Saint Petersburg, where he served as Prussian ambassador to Russia.
• In Russia, he secured the goodwill of the Tsar, which proved invaluable for Prussia later on.
• He briefly served as ambassador to France, gaining insights into Napoleon's character.
• In 1862, Bismarck was called back to Berlin to lead the ministry.

Bismarck as Minister-President of Prussia:

• Aims and Policies: Bismarck believed that a strong army was essential for Prussia's role in German unification. He viewed the constitutional conflict in Prussia as part of a larger problem to be solved through war and diplomacy.
• He understood that a parliamentary victory would be detrimental and that liberals would not support his ambitious plans. As a result, he clashed with Parliament and pushed for army reforms.

Bismarck's "Blood and Iron" Policy:

• Bismarck declared that Germany looked to Prussia for power, not liberalism, stating that "the great questions of the day are decided by Blood and Iron, not by speeches and resolutions."
• He envisioned a united Germany under Prussian leadership, but to achieve this, Austria had to be removed, necessitating war.

Overriding the Constitution and Implementing Army Reforms:

• For four years, Bismarck struggled against a parliamentary majority, overriding the Constitution to implement military reforms.
• He collected taxes without parliamentary approval and carried out reforms, earning the hatred of liberals due to his unconstitutional methods.

Bismarck's Diplomatic Preparations:

• In foreign policy, Bismarck aimed to isolate Austria.
• He sought the friendship of Napoleon III, concluded a commercial treaty with France, and took advantage of the Polish revolt in 1863 to gain the Tsar's goodwill.
• Bismarck offered assistance to the Tsar in suppressing the Polish revolt, securing Prussia's favor with Russia and alienating Austria.

Frustrating Austria's Federal Reforms:

• Bismarck convinced King William not to attend the Congress of Princes convened by Austria in 1863 to reform the German Confederation, undermining Austria's position in Germany.
• This move dashed Austria's hopes of consolidating its leadership in Germany.

Bismarck and Realpolitik:

• Bismarck, along with Roon and Moltke, took charge during a period of disarray among the Great Powers following the Crimean War (1854–55) and the Italian War (1859).
• Their combined efforts established Prussia as the leading German power through foreign diplomatic successes, potential military force, and internal conservatism tempered by pragmatism—known as Realpolitik.

Realpolitik Explained:

• Realpolitik involves politics or diplomacy based on power considerations and practical factors rather than ideological or moral premises.
• Bismarck articulated Realpolitik in his "Blood and Iron" speech in 1862, emphasizing that the great questions of the time would be resolved by iron and blood, not speeches and majority decisions.

Blood and Iron Policy:

• Although Bismarck was a skilled diplomat, the term "blood and iron" became associated with his foreign policy due to his effective use of war in achieving German unification and expanding Prussia's power.
• By 1862, the idea of a German nation-state had shifted from a liberal and democratic perspective to align with Bismarck's conservative Realpolitik.
• Bismarck's emphasis on "blood and iron" did not solely imply military might but also the capacity of German states to produce war materials and the willingness to use them if necessary.

Three Key Episodes in German Unification:

• The death of Frederick VII of Denmark without male heirs led to the Second War of Schleswig in 1864.
• The unification of Italy provided Prussia with an ally against Austria in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866.
• France declared war on Prussia in 1870, fearing encirclement by the Hohenzollerns, leading to the Franco-Prussian War.

Prussia's Hegemony and the End of Dualism Debate:

• Through Bismarck's diplomacy and leadership, von Roon's military reorganization, and von Moltke's military strategy, Prussia demonstrated that no European signatory of the 1815 peace treaty could guarantee Austria's influence in Central Europe.
• This established Prussian hegemony in Germany and concluded the dualism debate.

Coal and Iron vs. Blood and Iron in German Unification:

• John Maynard Keynes argued that the German Empire was founded on "coal and iron," referring to economic ties and strength, rather than "blood and iron," which implies unification through force.
• "Coal and iron" emphasizes economic cooperation, free trade, and economic strength as the basis for unification, while "blood and iron" focuses on military strength.

Economic Forces and the Zollverein:

• The Zollverein, founded and run by Prussia, established Prussia as the economic leader in Germany and facilitated cooperation among German states.
• By 1851, all states had joined the Zollverein, increasing Prussian power and paving the way for German unification under Prussia.
• The Zollverein shifted power from individual states to the middle classes, who recognized the benefits of unification.

Blood and Iron Policy:

• Bismarck's "blood and iron" policy relied on Prussia's military strength, which was made possible by economic strength ("coal and iron") providing resources and technology for the military.
• The expansion of the railway system and the spread of the German press further facilitated unification by breaking down economic and physical barriers.

Industrial and Economic Preparation:

• Keynes argued that industrial and economic preparation before the wars were more important for German unification than military might.
• Rapid industrialization enabled the creation of a powerful Prussia, under which Bismarck's diplomacy and opportunism led to successful unification in the wars of German Unification.

Role of Bismarck in Unification:

• Bismarck's role was crucial in the unification of Germany, as previous attempts in 1848 and 1851 had failed.
• Despite economic unification under Prussia through the Zollverein, political dominance remained with Austria.
• Bismarck recognized that economic unity alone was insufficient for political unification and resorted to "blood and iron" methods.

Wars Leading to Unification:

• The Second War with Austria (The Battle of Sadowa, 1866) established Prussia's political dominance.
• War with France (The Battle of Sedan, 1870) completed the process of German unification.

The Crimean War's Impact on German Unification:

• The Crimean War led to a significant regrouping of powers, making German unification feasible.
• During the war, Austria's hostile neutrality strained its relationship with Russia, which had previously saved the Austrian Empire during the Hungarian revolt of 1848-49.
• The breakdown of the alliance between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, which had been crucial for Austrian stability, occurred.
• Russia, angered by Austria's ingratitude, turned to Prussia, fostering a new alignment of powers that facilitated future developments.
• Bismarck capitalized on Russia's estrangement from Austria, seeking the Tsar's friendship to further his goal of excluding Austria from Germany.
• As a result, Austria was isolated during the Austro-Prussian War, with Russia remaining neutral, similar to Austria's earlier stance.
• Austria's defeat and the subsequent German Empire (post-unification) were largely based on Russian neutrality.

The Schleswig-Holstein Question

• The Schleswig-Holstein Question was the first event in the story of how Bismarck unified Germany. It was a dispute involving Denmark, Prussia, and Austria about the control of the regions of Schleswig and Holstein.
• At this time, the population of Schleswig was mixed, with a Danish majority in the north, a German majority in the south, and a mix of both in the towns and central areas. Holstein, on the other hand, was nearly all German.
• Schleswig had been under Denmark's control in the 13th and 14th centuries, but from 1386 to 1460, it was joined with Holstein. After 1474, both Schleswig and Holstein were ruled as separate duchies by the Danish kings. However, Holstein also remained a fief of the Holy Roman Empire and later became part of the German Confederation in 1815.
• The Napoleonic Wars sparked a sense of German nationalism, leading to the idea that Schleswig and Holstein should unite as a single state within the German Confederation. This idea was contested by Danish nationalists in northern Schleswig and in Denmark itself, who argued that Schleswig had always belonged to Denmark and that the border should be the Eider River, historically the divide between Schleswig and Holstein.
• Danish nationalists wanted to incorporate Schleswig into Denmark, separating it from Holstein, while German nationalists aimed to confirm Schleswig's connection to Holstein, detaching it from Denmark.
• On November 15, 1863, King Christian IX of Denmark became king of Denmark and duke of Schleswig and Holstein. While Schleswig was a fief of Denmark, Holstein was part of the German Confederation. Despite this, the two duchies were seen as inseparably linked.

These conflicting views led to an uprising in March 1848 by the German majority in Schleswig-Holstein, who wanted independence from Denmark and closer ties with the German Confederation. The uprising was supported by Prussia, whose army expelled Danish forces from Schleswig-Holstein. The Duke of Augustenburg, who had a strong claim to the duchies, also opposed Danish control.

The conflict between Denmark and Prussia lasted three years (1848–50) and ended when the Great Powers pressured Prussia into accepting the London Protocol of 1852. According to this agreement, the German Confederation returned Schleswig-Holstein to Denmark. In return, Denmark agreed not to tie Schleswig more closely to Denmark than to Holstein.

• In 1863, however, the Liberal government persuaded the new Danish king, Christian IX, to sign a new joint constitution for Denmark and Schleswig. On November 18, 1863, Christian IX signed the Danish November Constitution, declaring the Duchy of Schleswig a part of Denmark.
• The German Confederation viewed this act as a violation of the London Protocol of 1852, which emphasized the distinction between the kingdom of Denmark and the independent duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. This allowed Prussia and Austria to intervene as defenders of the 1852 protocol.
• The German Confederation could rally support by highlighting the ethnic composition of the duchies, as large portions of Schleswig and Holstein were of German origin and spoke German, although Schleswig had a significant Danish population. The Duke of Augustenburg also revived his claim and offered to lead the resistance against Denmark.
• Bismarck took advantage of the situation. He wanted the duchies to go to Prussia, not to Denmark or the Duke of Augustenburg, whose claim was supported by the Federal Diet. Bismarck's first move was to ally with Austria to act jointly against Denmark. If he had acted alone, he might have faced opposition from the Federal Diet, of which Austria was the President. It was agreed that Austria and Prussia would resolve the matter without interference from the Diet.
• In the resulting German-Danish War (1864), Danish resistance was defeated by Prussia and Austria. According to the Peace of Vienna (October 1864), Christian IX ceded Schleswig and Holstein to Austria and Prussia.
• A dispute arose over the fate of the two duchies. Bismarck began to hinder Austria's proposal to hand the duchies over to the Duke of Augustenburg. To ease tensions, Bismarck met with the Austrian envoy Blome at Gastein in the Austrian Alps.

Gastein Convention: The Convention of Gastein was an agreement between Austria and Prussia reached on August 20, 1865, following their takeover of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein from Denmark. This agreement temporarily delayed the final confrontation between them for dominance over Germany.

• The pact stipulated that both the Austrian emperor and the Prussian king would have sovereignty over the duchies, with Prussia administering Schleswig and Austria administering Holstein. Both duchies were to be included in the Zollverein (German Customs Union), led by Prussia, even though Austria was not a member. Additionally, the issue of the duchies was not to be brought before the Diet.
• This convention marked a significant diplomatic victory for Bismarck. It undermined the claims of the Duke of Augustenburg, incorporated the duchies into the Zollverein, and made Austria's administration of Holstein challenging due to its geographical position, sandwiched between Schleswig to the north and Prussian territory to the south.

Although Prussia benefited from the treaty, Bismarck recognized that it did not resolve the German question or alleviate the rivalry between Austria and Prussia. Furthermore, the treaty contradicted the legal foundations of the German Confederation, leading to its rejection by smaller Confederation states and European powers. However, it was appreciated by Russia due to its hostility towards Austria following the Crimean War.

Seven Weeks’ War or Austro-Prussian War (1866)

• The Gastein Convention was highly disadvantageous to Austria and was not likely to last long. As Bismarck himself said, it merely “papered over the cracks,” and that was exactly what Bismarck wanted. War with Austria was necessary for the fulfillment of his great design of unification of Germany under Prussian leadership.
• The Gastein Convention soon collapsed due to Bismarck’s efforts to provoke a war with Austria as well as to eliminate Austria from the German Confederation. These efforts led to the outbreak of the Austro-Prussian War, also known as the Seven Weeks’ War, in June 1866.

Background of the War:

• Austria had no intention of keeping Holstein, which was sandwiched between Prussian territory. On 1 June 1866, she asked the Federal Convention for a resolution on the status of Holstein, which Prussia regarded as a breach of the mutual agreement.
• Bismarck used this as an excuse to start a war with Austria by accusing them of violating the Gastein Convention. He sent Prussian troops to occupy Holstein and expelled the Austrians.
• However, Bismarck needed the cause of the war to involve the whole German question. He proposed a reform of the German Confederation based on universal suffrage, with Austria excluded, making Prussia appear as the champion of national unification.
• Austria rejected Prussia’s proposal and mobilized federal troops against Prussia for the infraction of Austrian rights in Holstein. Prussia seceded from the confederation and declared war on Austria, framing it as an act of self-defense. This conflict became known as the Seven Weeks’ War.

Key Factors Leading to War:

• Alliance with Italy: Bismarck secured an alliance with Italy, committing Italy to join the war against Austria if Prussia attacked within three months. This alliance aimed to divert Austrian forces away from Prussia.
• European Powers’ Neutrality: Other European powers were either bound by alliances preventing their involvement or had domestic issues that took precedence. Britain had no interest in the conflict, Russia was unlikely to support Austria due to past grievances, and France was expected to remain neutral.
• Prussian Military Advantage: Bismarck was encouraged by the technological superiority of the Prussian army over the Austrian forces. Despite some German states initially siding with Austria, they remained on the defensive, failing to take effective action against Prussian troops.

Course of the War:

• The war began with Prussian troops occupying Holstein and quickly escalated into a full-scale conflict.
• Despite initial support for Austria from some German states, the Prussian army, equipped with modern technology and superior discipline, gained the upper hand.
• The decisive Battle of Sadowa(or Koniggratz) on July 3, 1866, was crucial for Prussian victory. A swift and decisive win was essential to prevent intervention from other powers like France or Russia, who were concerned about the conflict's escalation.
• Austria, facing a formidable and technologically advanced Prussian army, struggled to maintain its position. Despite promises of aid from France, the support arrived too late and was insufficient to turn the tide in favor of Austria.
• Through the alliance with Italy, Bismarck successfully diverted a portion of the Austrian forces to the south, further weakening Austria's position.

Treaty of Prague and Peace of Vienna:

• :The war formally concluded on August 23, 1866, with the Treaty of Prague.
• Austria accepted mediation from France’s Napoleon III, and the treaty resulted in the dissolution of the German Confederation and Austria’s permanent exclusion from German affairs.
• Prussia gained control of Schleswig-Holstein and annexed Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Nassau, and Frankfurt, consolidating its power and territory.
• By the Peace of Vienna(October 3, 1866), Austria ceded Venetia to Italy, despite facing military challenges from Italian troops.

Formation of the North German Confederation (1867):

• Prussia’s victory in the war enabled it to organize the North German Confederation, comprising all states north of the River Main, with the Prussian king as President.
• Austria and most of its allies were excluded from this new confederation, which had its own constitution, flag, and governmental structures.
• The North German Constitution established a national parliament, the Reichstag, with universal male suffrage (age 25 and above) and a federal council, the Bundesrat.
• To pass a law, a majority in both the Reichstag and Bundesrat was necessary, giving the allied governments an important veto power.

Consequences of the Seven Weeks War

Impact on Austria:

• The war marked the end of Austrian dominance over the German states and shifted its focus to the Balkans.
• Austrian Chancellor Ferdinand von Beust, eager for revenge against Bismarck for the defeat at Sadowa, quickly concluded the Ausgleich(Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867) with Hungary.
• This compromise granted equal status to Hungarian holdings and Austrian domains, creating the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary.
• Austria and Hungary became independent in all matters except war and diplomacy, each having separate constitutions, legislatures, and administrations.
• Vienna became the capital of Austria, and Budapest the capital of Hungary, with the same ruler bearing different titles.
• The compromise satisfied the Germans of Austria and Magyars of Hungary, but the subordinate Slavs demanded the same privileges, leading to tensions.

Impact on Prussia:

• Prussia emerged as a major military power, with the North German Confederation uniting its scattered territories and providing a strategic frontier.
• The victory altered the balance of power in Europe, strengthening Prussia’s position.
• The success in the war closed the debate over army reform and was a setback for German liberals, legitimizing militarism.
• A new political party, the National Liberal Party, emerged, supporting Bismarck’s national endeavors.
• Bismarck, once disliked, became popular, and through military victory, Prussia overcame Austria’s resistance to German unification.
• While Austria’s influence over the German states was broken, the war fragmented pan-German unity, as many German states resented Prussian dominance.

Impact on Italy:

• Italy gained Venetia and progressed further towards unification, strengthening its position in the region.

Impact on France:

• The French public harbored resentment towards Prussia for the victory and demanded “Revenge for Sadowa,” reflecting rising anti-Prussian sentiment.
• The Austro-Prussian War strained relations with the French government. Bismarck’s prior discussions with Napoleon III in Biarritz, implying potential French territorial gains in Belgium and Luxembourg for neutrality, contributed to animosity.
• Prussia’s decision not to annex Austrian territory fostered future alliances, as Austria perceived greater threats from Italian and Pan-Slavic irredentism than from Prussia.
• The war solidified Prussia’s dominance in German politics, setting the stage for the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 and the eventual crowning of King William of Prussia as German Emperor in 1871, unifying the German states into a powerful European entity.

The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)

Causes of War:

Stronger Prussia and worried France:

• The causes of the Franco-Prussian War are closely linked to the events surrounding German unification. After the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, Prussia expanded its territory and established the North German Confederation. This shift disrupted the balance of power in Europe set by the Congress of Vienna in 1815.
• Prussia aimed to extend its influence into Southern Germany, which alarmed France. France opposed the idea of a powerful Germany on its borders, fearing it would threaten its security. Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck believed that a war with France was necessary to ignite German nationalism in the Southern States, facilitating their unification into a stronger German Empire.
• Bismarck's goal was to portray France as the aggressor in the conflict to rally the Southern German States behind Prussia.

Internal Difficulties of Napoleon III:

• French ruler Napoleon III faced increasing pressure at home, with rising demands for democratic reforms and fears of revolution. After the defeat of the French-backed Emperor Maximilian in Mexico in 1867, Napoleon III sought a diplomatic success to stabilize his regime.
• He believed that a war with Prussia and potential territorial gains could unify the French nation behind his rule. To strengthen his position, he began demanding territorial compensations from Prussia, but Bismarck refused to cede any German territory.
• Napoleon's fluctuating demands for compensation and Bismarck's refusal to yield led to heightened tensions. Ultimately, Napoleon III saw war with Prussia as the only way to secure his position.

Bismarck and German nationalism:

• Prussia faced its own challenges after the Austro-Prussian War. Despite acquiring new territories, the remaining German kingdoms were wary of Prussian dominance and resisted unification. Bismarck, however, was more focused on strengthening Prussia than on uniting Germany for its own sake.
• He believed that unifying Germany was only worthwhile if it benefited Prussia. To achieve this, Bismarck felt that war was necessary to unite Germany under Prussian leadership.

Immediate cause of War:

• The immediate spark for the Franco-German War was the candidacy of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern for the Spanish throne, following the deposition of Queen Isabella II in 1868. Bismarck and Spain's leader, Juan Prim, convinced the reluctant Leopold to accept the throne in June 1870, which alarmed France due to the potential alliance of Prussia and Spain against it.
• Although Leopold's candidacy was withdrawn under French pressure, King William I of Prussia refused to guarantee that Leopold would never again be a candidate for the Spanish throne. Bismarck manipulated this situation by publishing the Ems telegram, which incited the French government and led to their declaration of war on July 19, 1870. Napoleon III believed that a war with Prussia would restore his popularity in France, as military advisors assured him of victory. The French were confident in their military superiority, bolstered by recent reorganizations and technological advancements like the breech-loading chassepot rifle and the mitrailleuse.

Bismarck’s Diplomacy isolates France

Bismarck diplomatically isolated France by fostering goodwill with other powers. He improved relations with Russia, Austria, and Italy, and stirred public opinion against French aggression. This isolation left France without allies, even among southern German states previously hostile to Prussia.

• Battle of Sedan: The Prussian army’s efficient organization and mobility, led by General Moltke, were crucial in the Franco-German War. Their superior mobilization contrasted with the French’s confusion. After several battles, the decisive Battle of Sedan on September 1, 1870, marked a significant defeat for the French, leading to the fall of the Second French Empire. The French army surrendered, and Napoleon III was captured.
• Siege of Paris and Proclamation of Germany Emperor: After the French defeat at Sedan, the German High Command anticipated a peace offer from France. However, the newly established French Republic initially resisted surrender. The Prussian army besieged Paris until mid-January 1871. On January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, German princes and military leaders proclaimed Wilhelm as the German Emperor.
• Treaty of Frankfurt: Under the Treaty of Frankfurt, signed on May 10, 1871, France ceded Alsace and part of Lorraine, paid a large indemnity, and accepted German administration of Paris and northern France. Residents of Alsace-Lorraine had until October 1, 1872, to choose between retaining their French nationality or becoming German citizens. The treaty had long-lasting effects, fueling French revanchism and shaping policies towards Germany for decades.

Consequences of Franco-Prussian War

Completion of unification of Germany and constitution of German Empire:

• The Franco-Prussian War led to the unification of Germany and the establishment of the German Empire, which lasted until World War II. The victories in the war fostered a desire for a permanent union among the German states.
• On January 18, 1871, King William of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor in the royal palace of Versailles. The Constitution of the North German Confederation was expanded to include all German states, establishing Germany as a federal government with a two-house parliament. The Upper House (Bundesrat) consisted of delegates from the states, while the Reichstag was elected by popular vote.

Completion of the unity of Italy:

• The war also facilitated the completion of Italian unification. With France no longer able to protect the Pope, the French garrison in Rome withdrew, allowing Italy to annex the Papal States on September 20, 1870. This event marked the end of the Pope's temporal power and established Rome as the capital of united Italy.

The Third Republic in France:

• Following the Treaty of Frankfurt, France experienced a brief period of chaos, including the Paris Commune (1871), where lawless elements seized Paris for two months, causing significant damage. After the suppression of the Commune, France stabilized under the Third Republic, which provided a stable government and marked a successful transition from the previous regime.

Russia tore up Treaty of Paris:

• Russia used the opportunity presented by the Franco-Prussian War to disregard the clauses of the Treaty of Paris, which had neutralized the Black Sea following the Crimean War. Russia began fortifying Sevastopol, and the Powers acknowledged this change at a conference in London.

Other effects:

• Internationally, the war transformed Germany from the weakest to the strongest military and political power in Europe. The German victory reinforced belief in Prussian militarism, which influenced other great powers. The annexation of Alsace-Lorraine by Germany created a lasting desire for revenge among the French people.
• The period from 1871 to 1914 was marked by an unstable peace, driven by France's aim to recover Alsace-Lorraine and Germany's rising imperial ambitions. This mutual animosity ultimately contributed to the prolonged conflict on the Western Front during World War I.

Impact of German Unification

Overturning the Balance of Power in Europe:

• The unification of Germany in 1871 brought about a significant shift in the balance of power in Europe, making Germany the strongest military force on the continent under Bismarck's leadership.
• To ensure Germany's security, Bismarck forged a secret alliance with Austria-Hungary and a triple treaty with Russia, Austria, and Germany, known as the Alliance of Three Emperors.
• Initially, the new German state avoided involvement in the imperialistic competition in Africa and Asia to maintain peace among European nations. It only entered the imperial race after Bismarck's departure from power.

Indirect Cause of World War One:

• Bismarck's actions in unifying Germany would later contribute to the outbreak of World War One. After defeating France, Germany imposed the humiliating Treaty of Frankfurt, which fostered lasting resentment among the French people.
• While the treaty aimed to prevent future French aggression, it ultimately fueled French hostility towards Germany, setting the stage for conflict in World War One. Bismarck's foreign policy, characterized by alliances, created long-term tensions that contributed to the lead-up to the war.

Economic Growth:

• With unification and a new emperor, Germany experienced tremendous economic growth. Although signs of impending industrial success were evident before 1871, the post-unification period saw Germany advance economically with increasing complexity.
• Free trade among states boosted exports and imports, facilitating the adoption of innovations. Agriculture expanded alongside industry, but population growth necessitated grain imports. The acquisition of Lorraine in 1871 spurred industrial growth, particularly in iron production. By 1900, Germany surpassed Britain in steel manufacturing, crucial for building railroads, a merchant fleet, domestic machinery, and armaments. The electrical and chemical industries were the pride of this early German economic miracle.
• The unification of the monetary system, exemplified by the introduction of the Deutsche Mark in 1871, also propelled German industry forward. Backed by gold, the new monetary system facilitated economic stability and growth.
• Germany became a pillar of the Second Industrial Revolution, leading advancements in various industries.

Germany as a Colonial Power:

• Initially opposed to colonial expansion, Bismarck's stance shifted due to changes in trade policy, leading to Germany's acquisition of colonies in Africa, Kiaochow in China, the Carolines, and half of Samoa by 1900.
• Germany emerged as a significant player during the Scramble for Africa, and the pursuit of new colonies eventually contributed to the outbreak of World War One.

No Political and Social Reform:

• Internally, Germany between 1870 and 1914 exhibited stark contrasts. While its economy advanced to make it the most developed nation in Europe, its political structure resisted liberalizing trends, remaining conservative and autocratic.
• The social structure was increasingly outdated, dominated by wealthy landowners who mechanized their farms at the expense of peasants and capitalists profiting at the cost of a struggling working class.
• As the social and political systems lagged behind economic progress, tensions emerged in the form of growing opposition parties, protests, and strikes. Discontent was partially redirected away from the government towards groups such as Catholics, socialists, and particularly Jews. These tensions, along with World War I, delayed their resolution.

Political Structure of the German Empire:

• The 1866 North German Constitution was adapted to become the 1871 Constitution of the German Empire. This constitution introduced some democratic features, such as the Imperial Diet, which provided representation based on direct and equal suffrage for all males over 25, contrasting with Prussian practices.
• Legislation required the consent of the Bundesrat, the federal council of state deputies, over which Prussia had significant influence. Prussia also held substantial power in both legislative bodies, with executive authority vested in the Prussian King as Kaiser, who appointed the federal chancellor.
• Although the chancellor was officially responsible for all state affairs, in practice, State Secretaries, who oversaw various government fields like finance and war, acted as unofficial ministers. The imperial chancellor was typically the prime minister of Prussia.
• The Imperial Diet could pass, amend, or reject bills but could not initiate legislation, a power reserved for the chancellor. The other states maintained their own governments.

Chancellor of the German Empire:

• In 1871, Otto von Bismarck was elevated to the rank of Prince (Furst) and became the first Imperial Chancellor of the German Empire while retaining his Prussian positions, including Minister-President and Foreign Minister.
• Because of his dual roles in the empire and Prussia, Bismarck had significant control over both domestic and foreign policy. The office of Minister President of Prussia was briefly separated from that of Chancellor in 1873 when Albrecht von Roon was appointed Minister President. However, Roon resigned later that year due to health issues, and Bismarck reassumed the Minister President role.