Nazi Counter-Revolution: Germany | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Weimar Republic

After Germany's defeat in the First World War, the German Emperor, Kaiser, fled, and a new democratic government was established in February 1919 in the small town of Weimar. This decision was made because it was deemed too dangerous to declare the new government in Berlin, where a Communist group called the Spartacists had just staged a revolt. The Weimar Republic represented a sincere effort to create a democratic nation.

Key Features of the Weimar Republic:

• A Bill of Rights guaranteed every German citizen freedom of speech and religion, and equality under the law.
• All men and women over the age of 20 were given the right to vote, which was more progressive than in Britain, where women could only vote if they were over 30.
• The government was led by an elected president and an elected Reichstag (parliament).
• The Reichstag was responsible for making laws and appointing the government, which had to follow the Reichstag's directives.

Why Did the Weimar Republic Fail?

The Weimar Republic faced numerous challenges from the outset.

1. Association with the Versailles Treaty: The Republic was linked to the Versailles Treaty, which imposed harsh terms on Germany, including military restrictions, reparations, and the war-guilt clause. This association made the Republic unpopular, as nationalists could never forgive it for accepting such terms.
2. Lack of Respect for Democracy: There was a historical lack of respect for democratic governance in Germany. Many people admired the army and the officer class as rightful leaders. In 1919, many believed that the army had not been defeated but betrayed by the democratic politicians who agreed to the Versailles Treaty. What most Germans did not realize was that it was General Ludendorff who had requested an armistice while the Kaiser was still in power.
3. Weaknesses in the Weimar Constitution: The Weimar Constitution's system of proportional representation, intended to ensure fair representation of political groups, led to political instability. Voters chose parties rather than individual candidates, resulting in many small parties and no single party able to form a majority government. This situation led to a series of coalition governments, causing political indecisiveness.
4. Article 48: This article allowed the president to issue decrees without the Reichstag's approval in emergencies. However, it did not define what constituted an emergency, eventually becoming a means for Hitler to gain power legally.
5. Lack of Experience: Political parties had little experience in operating a democratic parliamentary system. Before 1919, the Reichstag had not controlled policy; the Chancellor had the final authority. Under the Weimar Constitution, the Chancellor was accountable to the Reichstag, which had the final say. However, the parties had not learned to compromise, leading to political deadlock.

Outbreaks of Violence

Various violent uprisings occurred during the early years of the Weimar Republic.

1. The Spartacist Rising: In January 1919, inspired by the Russian Revolution, the communists attempted to seize power, occupying major cities in Germany. The government managed to defeat them with the help of the Freikorps, independent anti-communist volunteer regiments. This reliance on private forces highlighted the government's weakness.
2. The Kapp Putsch (March 1920): A right-wing attempt to seize power occurred when the government tried to disband the Freikorps private armies. The Freikorps declared Dr. Wolfgang Kapp as Chancellor, and Berlin was occupied by a Freikorps regiment. The German army did not intervene, as the generals sympathized with the right. Eventually, Berlin workers called a general strike, which led to Kapp's resignation and the government's return to power. However, the government was so weak that only Kapp was punished, and it took two months to disband the Freikorps, whose members remained hostile to the republic.
3. Political Assassinations: Ex-Freikorps members carried out a series of political assassinations, targeting figures like Walter Rathenau, the Jewish Foreign Minister. The government faced opposition from right-wing parties when trying to take strong measures against these acts of terrorism. While communist leaders were brutally murdered, right-wing offenders were treated leniently by the courts, and the government was unable to intervene effectively.
4. Hitler's Munich Putsch (1923): In November 1923, during public discontent over the French occupation of the Ruhr and the collapse of the German mark, Hitler, aided by General Ludendorff, attempted to seize control of the Bavarian state government in Munich and then lead a national revolution. However, the police easily dispersed Hitler's march, and the Putsch quickly failed. Hitler was sentenced to five years in prison but served only nine months due to some sympathy from Bavarian authorities.
5. Reasons for Hitler's Munich Putsch in 1923: By 1923, the Nazi Party had 55,000 members and was strong. The Weimar Republic was in crisis, and the government had called off the general strike, angering nationalists. Hitler believed he would receive support from important nationalist politicians in Bavaria. He had a large army of storm troopers and needed to give them a purpose. Hitler intended to emulate Mussolini, the Italian fascist leader who had come to power in 1922 by marching on Rome. The Munich Putsch was a failure. As a result:
6. The Nazi Party was banned, and Hitler was prohibited from public speaking until 1927.
7. While in prison, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf, which gained widespread readership and popularity for his ideas.
8. Hitler realized he could not come to power through revolution and decided to pursue constitutional means, leading to the establishment of the Hitler Youth, propaganda campaigns, mergers with other right-wing parties, local branches of the party, and the creation of the Schutzstaffel (SS) as his personal bodyguard in 1925. This legitimate strategy eventually led to his rise to power.

Private Armies Expand

• From 1924 to 1929, violence decreased as the Weimar Republic stabilized. However, with rising unemployment in the early 1930s, private armies expanded, and regular street fights, primarily between Nazis and communists, became common. 
• All parties faced disruptions during their meetings, and the police appeared powerless to stop the violence. This situation demonstrated the government's inability to maintain law and order, leading to a decline in respect for it. 
• An increasing number of people began to favor a return to strong, authoritarian government capable of maintaining strict public order.

Economic Problems

Economic issues were likely the most critical factor in the Weimar Republic's failure. In 1919, Germany was on the brink of bankruptcy due to the war's enormous costs, which exceeded expectations. Efforts to pay reparations exacerbated the situation.

1. In August 1921, after paying the initial £50 million in reparations, Germany requested permission to suspend payments until its economy recovered. France refused, and in 1922, Germany claimed it could not make the full annual payment.
2. In January 1923, French troops occupied the Ruhr, a crucial industrial area in Germany, to seize goods from factories and mines. The German government ordered workers in the Ruhr to engage in passive resistance, paralyzing German industry in the region. Although the French did not achieve their goal, the impact on the German economy was catastrophic, leading to hyperinflation and the collapse of the mark (Germany's currency).
3. The financial situation finally stabilized when Chancellor Gustav Stresemann introduced a new currency, the Rentenmark, in 1924.

This financial disaster had significant societal effects in Germany:

• The working classes suffered as wages did not keep pace with inflation, and trade union funds were depleted.
• The middle classes and small capitalists were worst affected, losing their savings and increasingly turning to the Nazis for solutions.
• In contrast, landowners and industrialists emerged from the crisis well, as they retained their material wealth—rich farmland, mines, and factories. This strengthened big business's control over the German economy.

From 1924 onwards, the economic situation improved dramatically, largely due to the Dawes Plan, which provided an immediate loan from the USA equivalent to £40 million, relaxed fixed reparations payments, and effectively allowed Germany to pay what it could afford. French troops withdrew from the Ruhr, the currency stabilized, and industries such as iron, steel, coal, chemicals, and electrical experienced a boom. Wealthy landowners and industrialists were content to tolerate the republic during this period of prosperity.

• Germany was even able to meet its reparations installments under the Dawes Plan.
• During this relatively successful period, Gustav Stresemann emerged as the dominant political figure. Although he served as Chancellor only from August to November 1923, he remained foreign minister until his death in October 1929, providing continuity and stability.
• The Dawes Plan was further advanced by the Young Plan in October 1929, which reduced the total reparations from £6600 million to £2000 million, to be paid in annual installments over 59 years.
• However, the prosperity of the republic was heavily dependent on American loans, a fact not fully recognized at the time. If the USA faced financial difficulties that forced it to stop loans or demand quick repayment, the German economy would be adversely affected. This scenario became a reality in 1929.
• Following the Wall Street Crash in October 1929, a global economic crisis ensued. The USA halted further loans and began calling in many short-term loans previously extended to Germany. This situation led to a crisis of confidence in the currency, resulting in a run on the banks, many of which had to close. The industrial boom had caused worldwide overproduction, severely impacting German exports, and factories had to shut down. By mid-1931, unemployment had risen to nearly 4 million.

Unfortunately for Germany, Stresemann, the most capable politician to manage the crisis, died of a heart attack in October 1929.

Steps Taken by the German Government:

• The German government implemented various measures, including reducing social services, unemployment benefits, and salaries and pensions of government officials, and halting reparations payments. High tariffs were introduced to restrict foreign food imports and support German farmers, while the government purchased shares in factories affected by the economic downturn.

Impact:

• These measures did not yield immediate results; unemployment continued to rise, reaching over 6 million by spring 1932. The government faced criticism from various societal groups, particularly industrialists and the working class, who demanded more decisive action. The loss of working-class support due to rising unemployment and reduced unemployment benefits dealt a significant blow to the republic.
• By the end of 1932, the Weimar Republic was on the brink of collapse. However, it might have survived if there had been no compelling alternative.

The Alternative - Hitler and the Nazis

Hitler and the Nazi Party presented what seemed like an appealing alternative at a time when the Weimar Republic was struggling to function effectively. The Nazi Party's success was closely tied to the economic situation; as the economy became more unstable, the Nazis gained more seats in the Reichstag.

• In the July 1932 election, with unemployment exceeding 6 million, the Nazis became the largest single party, winning 230 out of 608 seats.
• The rise of Hitler and the Nazis, fueled by the economic crisis, was a significant factor in the Weimar Republic's downfall.

What Contributed to Nazi Popularity?

Understanding National Socialism and Hitler's Rise to Power

What National Socialism Stood For:

• In 1919, Adolf Hitler joined the German Workers' Party, a small right-wing group. He later became its leader and renamed it the National Socialists (Nazis).
• The party developed a 25-Point Programme, which Hitler elaborated on in his book "Mein Kampf" after the failed Munich Putsch in 1924.
• National Socialism did not mean nationalization or wealth redistribution. The term "socialism" was included to attract German workers, although Hitler did promise better conditions for them. It resembled Mussolini's fascism more than traditional socialism.

General Principles of National Socialism:

• All classes in society must unite into a ‘national community’ to restore Germany's greatness and national pride, with the Nazis claiming to have the only correct way to achieve this.
• A totalitarian and efficient state was emphasized, with the central government organizing all aspects of life, prioritizing state interests over individual ones. Propaganda played a vital role in maintaining this system.
• The state was to be militarized, as achieving greatness was believed to require war.
• Racial theory was crucial, dividing mankind into Aryans (Germans) and non-Aryans. Aryans were considered the master race, while groups like Slavs, colored peoples, and especially Jews, were deemed inferior and excluded from the national community.

Other Nazi Ideologies:

• Lebensraum: The need for "living space" for the German nation to expand.
• Führer: The belief in a single leader with absolute power instead of a democratic system.
• Social Darwinism: The idea of survival of the fittest applied to nation-states, including Nazi racial doctrine.

Debate on the Development of Nazism:

• Historians debate whether Nazism was a natural development of German history or a distortion of it.
• View I: Some argue Nazism was an extension of Prussian militarism and German traditions, evident in pre-World War I and World War II brutalities.
• View II: Marxist historians see Nazism as the culmination of western capitalism's flaws.
• View III: Many German historians emphasize Hitler's unique contribution, viewing Nazism as a departure from normal historical development.
• The conclusion acknowledges elements of both views, recognizing Hitler's rise was facilitated by German political culture but was not inevitable without unique conditions.

Hitler Consolidates Power

• Hitler, originally an Austrian, transformed the German Workers' Party into the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP) in Munich.
• By January 1933, he became Chancellor in a coalition government but sought more power, leading to a general election.

The Election of 5 March 1933:

• The election campaign was marked by extreme violence. The Nazis utilized state resources like press and radio to sway public opinion.
• Hermann Goering, as minister of the interior for Prussia, controlled the police, replacing senior officers with Nazis and enlisting auxiliary policemen from the SA and SS.
• Nazi and nationalist meetings were permitted, while communist and socialist gatherings were disrupted.
• The Reichstag fire on 27 February 1933 played a pivotal role in the campaign, allowing Hitler to imprison many communist leaders, weakening their influence.
• Despite their efforts, the Nazis did not secure an overall majority, winning 288 out of 647 seats, with nationalists securing 52 seats.

How Hitler Stayed in Power:

• Hitler aimed to eliminate dependence on other political figures and sought the Enabling Law on 23 March 1933.
• The law granted the government the power to introduce laws without Reichstag approval for four years, ignore the constitution, and sign foreign agreements.
• Despite lacking a simple majority, the Nazis secured the Enabling Act through intimidation, with SS troops surrounding the Reichstag.
• After passing the Enabling Law, the Nazis abolished parliamentary democracy, and Hitler became the absolute ruler of Germany.
• When President Hindenburg died, Hitler declared himself president, chancellor, and head of the army, becoming the Führer.

Gleichschaltung (Forcible Coordination):

• Hitler, having silenced the Reichstag, initiated Gleichschaltung, transforming Germany into a totalitarian state.
• The regime employed propaganda and intimidation through the SS and Gestapo to control public life.
• Opposition was suppressed, with concentration camps filled with political prisoners, including communists, social democrats, and religious figures.

Control Over Government:

• Enabling Act: This act allowed Hitler to bypass the Reichstag in law-making, consolidating his power.
• Local Government Reorganisation: Local governments were restructured to ensure Nazi control.
• One Party System: All political parties except the National Socialists were banned, establishing a one-party state. No more state or local elections were held.

Control Over Workers:

• The RAD (National Labour Service): Young men were sent on public works projects.
• Conscription: Introduced in 1936, most men joined the army after the RAD.
• KdF (Strength through Joy): Regulated workers' leisure time.
• Trade Unions Abolished: Trade unions were abolished, their funds confiscated, and leaders arrested. They were replaced by the DAF (German Labour Front), which controlled workers' conditions at work. Strikes were prohibited.

Control Over Education and Youth:

• Education System Control: Schools and youth associations were Nazified. Non-Nazi teachers were dismissed, and history was distorted to align with Nazi ideology.
• Indoctrination through Youth Organizations: The Hitler Youth and Nazi Girls’ youth organization were made compulsory to indoctrinate children in Nazi values.
• Encouraging Population: Policies encouraged ‘racially pure’ families to have more children, while discouraging undesirable groups from procreation. Marriages between Aryans and Jews were forbidden, and many considered ‘unfit’ were sterilized.

Propaganda:

• Josef Goebbels: Controlled the Propaganda Ministry, aiming to brainwash the public into obeying the Nazis and idolizing Hitler.
• Mass Rallies and Media Control: Mass rallies, radio, newspapers, and other media were supervised to ensure the Nazi viewpoint was promoted. Films glorifying the Nazis and the military were produced.
• Hitler’s image was propagated everywhere, portraying him as Germany's savior.

Culture (Social):

• Nazification of Culture: Nazi values were imposed on all aspects of German life. Artists had to produce works that aligned with Nazi ideology.
• Control Over Social Life: Jazz music was banned, and books by Jews and socialists were burned. Homosexuals were persecuted as they did not fit the ideal family image.
• Women’s Roles: Women were expected to stay at home, have children, and care for the family. Careers for women in professions like medicine and teaching were terminated.

Religious Policy:

• Hitler saw religion as a potential threat to Nazi control and sought to diminish the church's influence.
• Roman Catholic Church: Initially, Hitler signed a Concordat with the pope in 1933, promising not to interfere with German Catholics. However, relations soured as Hitler broke the agreement.
• Protestant Churches: Hitler attempted to organize Protestant churches into a Reich Church with a Nazi bishop. However, many pastors protested against Nazi interference and treatment of Jews. Hitler responded with persecutions.

Police State:

• Germany was transformed into a police state where the SS and Gestapo suppressed open opposition.
• Camps were filled with political prisoners, including communists, social democrats, and clergy. Persecuted groups included homosexuals and Jews.

Anti-Semitic Policies:

• Hitler blamed Jews for various social and political issues, promoting the idea of racial purity with Aryans at the top and Jews at the bottom.
• The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 stripped Jews of citizenship and barred marriages between Aryans and Jews.
• Initially, anti-Jewish actions were cautious due to international scrutiny, but escalated over time.
• The Night of Broken Glass in November 1938 marked a significant increase in violence against Jews.
• During World War II, the situation for Jews worsened dramatically, leading to their mass extermination in concentration camps.
• The Holocaust resulted in the murder of about 5.7 million Jews out of 9 million in Europe, constituting one of the most horrific crimes against humanity in history.

Hitler’s Path to Power: Popularity and Policies

Introduction:

• Hitler’s rise to power was not just a result of fear and terror; he gained popularity through various policies and actions that appealed to different sections of German society. This section explores how Hitler managed to retain support and how his domestic policies were perceived.

Hitler’s Popularity and Support:

• Hitler’s regime was initially supported because he promised to improve the general standard of living and make the German people wealthy. His rise to power in January 1933 was met with enthusiasm after the instability of the Weimar Republic. Hitler organized military parades, torchlight processions, and fireworks, especially the large rallies in Nuremberg, to maintain this enthusiasm.

Elimination of Unemployment

One of the key reasons for Hitler’s popularity was his success in reducing unemployment, which had soared to over 6 million when he took power. By the end of 1935, it had dropped to just over 2 million, and by 1939, it was almost negligible. This achievement was due to:

• Public Works Program: Initiatives like planting forests, building hospitals, schools, and the 1936 Olympic Stadium created numerous jobs.
• Expansion of Party Bureaucracy: The rapid expansion of the Nazi Party necessitated thousands of new office and administrative positions.
• Purge of Non-Nazis: Jews and anti-Nazis were removed from civil service and various professions, creating vacancies.
• Conscription and Rearmament: Reintroducing conscription in 1935 and ramping up rearmament from 1934 created jobs in the armaments industry.

Support from Different Groups

Workers:

• Hitler maintained workers' support by providing jobs, despite abolishing trade unions.
• The Strength through Joy Organization offered benefits like subsidized holidays, cheap theater tickets, and improved social security provisions.

Industrialists and Businessmen:

• Despite government interference, industrialists were happy with the Nazis because they felt safe from a communist takeover and were rid of trade unions.
• They could buy back shares sold to the state during the 1929-32 crisis at low prices and profited from public works, rearmament, and government contracts.

Farmers:

• Initially unsure, farmers supported the Nazis once they realized the regime favored self-sufficiency in food production.
• Prices for agricultural produce were fixed, ensuring reasonable profits.
• Farms were declared hereditary estates, protecting heavily indebted farmers from having to sell or mortgage their farms.

Reichswehr (Army):

• Winning the support of the Reichswehr was crucial for Hitler’s security in power, as they could have removed him by force.
• Despite some generals viewing him as an upstart, the officer class appreciated Hitler's plans for rearmament and expanding the army, which were in line with their interests.
• Hitler’s Rohm Purge in June 1934, where he dealt with SA leaders, further ingratiated him with the army.

Opposition to Hitler

While Hitler faced opposition from various groups such as the Catholic and Protestant Churches, the White Rose group of students at Munich University, and the Edelweiss Pirates, who engaged in sabotage and anti-Nazi activities, these groups were ultimately suppressed. The most significant attempt to assassinate Hitler was in 1944, when a group of army officers and intellectuals tried to bomb him. Although the bomb failed to kill him, the retaliation involved executing 5,000 people.

Success in Domestic Affairs:

• There are differing opinions on Hitler’s success in domestic affairs. Some argue that his regime brought benefits to most Germans and that his popularity endured into the 1940s despite wartime hardships. Others believe that his successes were exaggerated and created by propaganda.

Successful View:

Proponents of this view argue that the Nazis were successful until 1939 because they provided various benefits and developed a strong economy. They believe that if Hitler had kept Germany out of war, his regime could have lasted as he promised.

Superficially Successful View:

• Critics argue that Hitler’s successes were superficial and could not last. They claim that the so-called economic miracle was an illusion, with the country being technically bankrupt. Full employment was achieved through brutal anti-Jewish campaigns and massive rearmament.
• Success in self-sufficiency depended on conquering eastern Europe, and Hitler’s policies were not sustainable without war. There was no significant improvement in the living standards of ordinary people, and shortages of food and goods increased as rearmament intensified.
• Historians also suggest that Hitler was not prepared for a long war and resisted pressure to prepare because he believed Germany could not win a prolonged conflict.

Was Hitler Genuinely Popular?

View I: Hitler was genuinely popular:

• Hitler’s foreign policy successes, including rearmament and territorial expansions, made him extremely popular.
• Propaganda portrayed him as a charismatic leader restoring Germany’s greatness.
• Even though there was little enthusiasm for war, Hitler’s popularity surged after the quick defeat of France in 1940.
• Many ordinary Germans believed Hitler would improve their living standards and supported him despite the excesses of some party members.
• The middle and propertied classes appreciated the law and order he restored and were misled into thinking concentration camps were for re-education of ‘anti-social troublemakers’.

View II: Hitler did not enjoy widespread support:

• Some historians believe that after the initial years, Hitler lacked widespread support.
• Propaganda and military parades eventually led to boredom and escapism, with fear of arrest being the main reason for tolerating the regime.
• Hitler’s image declined during the war, especially after declaring war on the USA, as people realized the war was unwinnable.
• However, the public remained loyal out of fear of repercussions and fatalism.

Was Hitler a Weak Dictator?

Some historians argue that Hitler was a weak dictator who exploited circumstances rather than having a clear plan. Many policies attributed to him were actually initiated by others. In contrast, others view Hitler as a powerful dictator who was the master of the Third Reich. His early successes in foreign policy, the suppression of the SA, and decisions during the war showed he was not weak. While he relied on support from various influential groups, much of what happened during his regime would have been unthinkable without his leadership.