Nitin Singhania Summary: Indian Paintings- 1 | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Introduction

• Painting has been a significant form of artistic expression in India since ancient times.
• Evidence of cave wall paintings suggests early human engagement in artistic activities.
• Throughout history, painting evolved from illustrated books to the miniature style in Mughal and Rajput courts.
• European influence brought changes to Indian painting and engraving.
• Modern Indian painters have experimented with diverse styles, colors, and designs.

Principles of Painting

• Painting in India traces back to primitive rock paintings in locations like Bhimbetaka, Mirzapur, and Panchmarhi.
• The Indus Valley civilization featured painted pottery, signifying an early form of Indian painting.
  
• The Gupta Age saw significant advancements in the art of painting.
• Vatsyayana's Kamasutra outlined six main principles of Indian art, including aesthetic composition and the use of brush and colors.
• Brahmanical and Buddhist literature contain references to various painting techniques such as Lepya Chitra and Lekhya Chitra.
  
• Other painting styles mentioned include Dhuli Chitra and Pata Chitra.
• Vishakhadatta's Mudrarakshasa references "Pata" or "patas," indicating isolated framed drawings representing different painting styles and principles.

Pre - Historic Paintings

• Prehistoric paintings were typically created on rocks and are referred to as Petroglyphs.
• Archaeologist Archibald Carlyle made the first discovery of rock paintings in India during 1867-1868.
• The earliest prehistoric paintings were found in the Bhimbetka Caves in Madhya Pradesh in 1957.
• Prehistoric paintings are categorized into three major phases.
  (i) Upper Paleolithic Period (40000-10000 BC)
  (ii) Mesolithic Period (10000-4000 BC)
  (iii) Chalcolithic Period 

Upper Palaeolithic Period (40,000-10,000 BC):

• During this period, rock shelter caves were predominantly constructed using quartzite as the primary material.
• Artists commonly utilized ochre or geru mixed with lime and water to create paints for their artworks.
• Various minerals such as red, white, yellow, and green were employed to produce a spectrum of colors for the paintings.
• Notably, large animals like bison, elephants, rhinoceroses, and tigers were depicted using a combination of white, dark red, and green pigments.
• Additionally, hunters were often portrayed in red hues, while green was predominantly utilized for illustrating dancers in these ancient artworks.

Mesolithic Period (10,000-4000 BC)

• Characterized by a shift towards the predominant use of red pigment in paintings.
• Artworks from this era were typically smaller in size compared to those from the Upper Palaeolithic Period.
• Common themes depicted in these paintings included scenes of group hunting, grazing activities, and instances of riding, reflecting the lifestyle and activities of the Mesolithic communities.

Chalcolithic Period (2500-700 BC)

• Notable for an increased use of green and yellow colors in the paintings.
• Artworks from this period often featured battle scenes portraying men riding horses and elephants, suggesting a focus on warfare or martial activities.
• Some figures depicted in these paintings were shown equipped with bows and arrows, indicating their preparedness for combat or skirmishes.
• The presence of Ashokan and Gupta Brahmi scripts in the cave sites suggests habitation during the later historical periods.

 Bhimbetka Rock Paintings

• Bhimbetka Cave site in Madhya Pradesh, discovered by archaeologist V.S. Wakankar, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Over 500 caves at Bhimbetka exhibit rock paintings dating back around 30,000 years.
• Paintings depict daily life, animals, hunting scenes, dancing, and social activities of prehistoric humans.
• Various colors like red ochre, purple, brown, white, yellow, and green were used, sourced from natural minerals.
• Similar prehistoric paintings are found in nearby sites like Bellary, Pachmarhi, Rajgarh, and Tenmalai in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.

Classification of Indian Paintings

• Mural Paintings
• Miniature Paintings
• Folk Paintings

Mural Paintings

• Murals are artworks on walls or solid structures, prevalent in India since ancient times.
• Their existence dates back between the 10th century BC and the 10th century AD.
• Evidence of mural paintings can be found across various locations in India.
• Notable examples include
  (i) Ajanta Cave
  (ii) Armamalai Cave
  (iii) Ravan Chhaya Rock Shelter
  (iv) Bagh Caves
  (v) Tirumalaipuram Caves
  (vi) Chithannavasal Cave,
• Most murals are found in natural caves or rock-cut chambers.
• These paintings commonly depict religious themes such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
• Additionally, murals were used to adorn mundane premises like the ancient theatre room in Jogimara Caves.

(A) Ajanta Cave Paintings

• Carved between the 2nd century BC and 7th century AD, Ajanta Caves contain some of India's oldest murals.
• Approximately 29 caves in a horseshoe shape, inscribed by Buddhist monks under Vakataka kings' patronage.
• Murals depict religious themes from Hindu and Buddhist traditions, portraying scenes from Jataka tales and Buddha's life.
• Executed in tempera style with natural pigments, showcasing emotions through hand gestures and unique hairstyles for female figures.

(B) Ellora Cave Paintings

• Found in five caves, mainly in Cave 16 (Kailasha Temple), executed in two phases.
• Depict scenes from Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist religions, with newer paintings than Ajanta's.
• Notable paintings include Lord Vishnu with Lakshmi and Shaiva holy men processions.

(C) Bagh Cave Paintings

• Located in the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh, an extension of Ajanta's style.
• Comparable to Ajanta's design, execution, and decoration, with tighter modeled figures and stronger outlines.
• Depict religious and secular themes, with Cave 4 (Rang Mahal) showcasing murals on Buddhist Jataka Tales.

(D) Armamalai Cave Paintings

• Situated in Vellore district, Tamil Nadu, natural caves converted into a Jain temple in the 8th century.
• Paintings depict tales of Jain deities and Astathik Palakas, resembling Bagh and Ajanta styles.
• Executed with vegetable and mineral dyes on thin wet lime plaster, featuring scenes of monks collecting flowers from a pond.

(E) Chithannavasal Cave (Arivar Koil) Paintings

• Dated from the 1st century BC to the 10th century AD, located in Tamil Nadu, featuring Jainism-themed murals.
• Resemble Bagh and Ajanta paintings, with depictions on walls, ceilings, and pillars.
• Central element portrays a pond with lotuses, monks, and animals, representing scenes of Jain Samavasarana.

(F) Ravan Chhaya Rock Shelter

• Found in Keonjhar district, Odisha, fresco paintings dating back to the 7th century AD.
• Shelter believed to be a royal hunting lodge, featuring a noticeable painting of a royal procession.

(G) Lepakshi Temple Paintings

• Located in Anantapur district, Andhra Pradesh, murals executed on Veerabhadra Temple walls in the 16th century.
• Follow religious themes from Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Vishnu incarnations, with a decline in painting quality.
• Prominent mural depicts Shiva chasing a wild boar, scene from Kiratarjuniya.

(H) Jogimara Cave Paintings

• Artificially carved cave in Surguja district, Chhattisgarh, dated to around 1000-300 BC.
• Features paintings and inscriptions of a love story in Brahmi script, possibly attached to an amphitheater.
• Depicts dancing couples, animals, with a distinct red outline and use of white, yellow, and black colors.

Miniature Paintings

• The term 'Miniature' originates from the Latin word 'Minium', referring to red lead paint.
• Historically, this paint was utilized in illuminated manuscripts during the Renaissance era.
• Miniature paintings were crafted for various purposes, including books and albums, often on perishable materials like paper, palm leaves, and cloth.
• The Indian subcontinent boasts rich traditions of miniature paintings, giving rise to diverse schools with unique compositions and perspectives.
• Miniatures are characterized by their small size and intricate details, reflecting meticulous craftsmanship.

(A) Techniques of Miniature Paintings

Miniature Paintings Rajasthan

• Miniature painting preconditions include:
  (a) Size limitation: Not exceeding 25 square inches.
  (b) Scale of subject: Painted no larger than 1/6th of its actual size.
• In Indian miniature paintings, human figures typically exhibit:
  (i) Side profiles,
  (ii) Bulging eyes,
  (iii) Pointed noses, and
  (iv) Slim waists.
• Rajasthani miniatures often depict:
  (i) Brown skin tones,
  (ii) While Mughal paintings tend to feature fairer skin tones.
• Divine beings, such as Lord Krishna, are commonly depicted with a blue hue.
• Women figurines typically portray:
  (i) Long hair,
  (ii) With eyes and hair colored black.
• Men are depicted wearing traditional attire, often including a turban.

(B) Early Miniature

• The art of miniature- developed between the 8th- 12th centuries.
• These paintings attributed to eastern & western regions.
• Two prominent schools are:
  (a) Pala School of Art
  (b) Apabhramsa School of Art

(i) Pala School of Art

Flourishing between 750-1150 AD, these paintings:

• Typically appear within manuscripts.
• Are crafted on materials like palm leaf or vellum paper.
• Were favored by Buddhist monks, who adhered to principles of non-violence and often utilized banana or coconut tree leaves.
• Exhibit sinuous lines and subdued background tones.
• Primarily feature solitary figures, with group compositions being rare.
• Showcase simple compositions and were often commissioned by rulers who supported Buddhism.
• Were also embraced by proponents of the Vajrayana school of Buddhism. 
• Notable painters associated with this period include Dhiman and Vitapala.

(ii) Apabhramsa School of Art

(C) Transition Period Miniature

• Coming of Muslims to Indian subcontinent brought a cultural renaissance in the 14th century.
• Islamic styles didn’t take over the traditional styles of paintings instead of a cultural synthesis took place.
• In southern states of Vijaynagara, a different style that was closer to the Deccan style of painting was emerging.
• Colours- applied in a flat manner & dress and human outlines- black.
• View of faces- is from a three-quarter angle & gives a detached appearance. The landscapes are full of trees, rocks and other designs that do not try to replicate the natural appearance of the subject.

(D) Miniature Art during Delhi Sultanate

• The art form amalgamated Persian and Indian traditional elements, creating a unique synthesis.
• Illustrated manuscripts like the Nimatnama were favored, especially during the reign of Nasir Shah in Mandu.
• This period witnessed the blending of indigenous and Persian styles, evident in works such as the Lodi Khuladar.
• The emergence of three dominant styles - Mughal, Rajput, and Deccan - marked the medieval landscape, each developing its own distinct identity while drawing inspiration from Sultanate precedents.

(E) Mughal Era Miniature Painting

• Characterized by a style rooted in Persian influences.
• Witnessed significant changes in color schemes, subject matters, and artistic forms.
• Shifted focus from religious depictions to glorifying the ruler, portraying hunting scenes, historical events, and courtly affairs.
• Intertwined Persian naturalistic elements with the grandeur of a mighty dynasty.
• Notable for the use of vibrant colors and meticulous line drawing, highlighting their unique artistic approach.
• Mughal art embraced diverse themes, excluding religious paintings, while excelling particularly in miniature illustrations renowned worldwide for their unparalleled quality.
• Brought technique of foreshortening to India, under which,“ objects were drawn in a way that they look closer and smaller than they  are.” The styles of paintings under the successive rulers are as follows:

Early Mughal Painters:

(i) Babur

• Established the Mughal dynasty and commissioned Persian artist Bihzad for Mughal family tree illustrations.
• Had limited time for art due to his focus on establishing the dynasty.

(ii) Humayun

• A patron of the arts who lost his throne, sought refuge in Persia, and acquired Persian painters Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali.
• Contributed to the infusion of Persian influence into Mughal art.

(iii) Akbar

• Established the Tasvir Khana painting department, integrating Indian artistic influences and promoting lifelike images.
• Fostered a diverse range of themes and artistic styles during his reign.

(iii) Jahangir

• Led Mughal painting to its zenith, emphasizing naturalism in flora and fauna depictions.
• Ustad Mansoor, a notable artist, contributed to the era's renowned miniature paintings.

(iv) Shah Jahan

• Shifted away from naturalistic depictions, favoring artificial elements inspired by European styles.
• Encouraged the use of pencils and increased the use of gold and silver in paintings.

(v) Aurangzeb

• Did not encourage painting, leading to a decline in Mughal court painting activities.
• Resulted in Mughal court painters migrating to provincial courts, marking a significant decrease in painting endeavors.

 (F) Regional Schools of Art

• Medieval period dominated by the Mughal style of painting.
• But sub- imperial Schools developed a space for them by developing their styles like their Indian roots and a penchant for colourful paintings as opposed to naturalistic Mughal style.
• The different schools and styles that developed in this period were:
  (a) Rajasthani Schools of Painting
  (b) Pahari Styles of Painting
  (c) Miniatures in South India
  (d) Modern Paintings
  (e) Bengal School of Art

(G) Rajasthani School of Painting

• Rajput painting emerged alongside the dominance of the Rajput ruling class.
• Influenced by Mughal court practices.
• Migration of artists from Mughal ateliers to Rajput regions.
• Influence from Deccan sultanates through artists and artworks.
• Pre-existing local artistic traditions in Rajput regions.
• Cultural confluence in Sultanate courts contributed to its development.
• Rajasthani paintings exhibit sub-genres corresponding to princely states.
• Each sub-genre showcases unique artistic traits and cultural influences.

(i) Mewar School of Painting

• Mewar resisted Mughal suzerainty for the longest time, until the reign of Shah Jahan.
• Its capital moved from Ranthambhore and Chittorgarh. Later, Udaipur was established.
• Mewar rulers patronised art even in times of adversity, in years of relative peace and prosperity -there was extraordinary efflorescence.
• Early Mewar painting- dominated by the extraordinary figure of Sahibdin (depiction of his literary texts - Rasikapriya, Ramayana and Bhagavata Purana).
• After his death, Mewari paintings changed.
• And now depicted the life at court in Mewar.
• Unique point - ‘tamasha’ paintings that show court ceremonial and city views in unprecedented detail.

(ii) Amber-Jaipur School of Painting

• The rulers of Amber had close ties with the Mughals.
• Although major patrons and collectors of art, the "Amber School" lacks a distinct identity.
• Also known as the 'Dhundar' school, its earliest evidence comes from wall paintings at Bairat in Rajasthan.
• Paintings on the walls and in the Amer palace exhibit a blend of Mughal and folk styles.
• Despite some men depicted in Mughal attire, the overall finish reflects folk art.
• The school flourished during the reign of Sawai Pratap Singh in the 18th century.
• Sawai Pratap Singh, deeply religious and a passionate art patron, established a painting department known as suratkhana.
• This department illustrated religious texts like the Bhagwata Purana and the Ramayana, as well as Ragamala.

(iii) Marwar School of Painting

• Jodhpur, Bikaner, and Jaisalmer are prominent centers of Rajput painting.
• Bikaner and Jodhpur thrived due to their strong connections with the Mughals.
• Clothing in 15th and 16th-century paintings featured vibrant colors.
• Early paintings reflected Mughal influences, but Rajput styles became dominant in the 18th century.
  
• Paintings showcased a blend of linear rhythm and vivid colors.
• Jodhpur produced remarkable paintings, especially during Man Singh's reign (1803-1843).
• Man Singh commissioned notable works like Shiva Purana Natacharitra and Durgacharitra.

(H) Pahari Styles of Painting

• Developed in the sub-Himalayan states (that were under Mughals).
• Many schools ateliers in the court of around 22 princely states stretching front Jammu to Almora, came under the blanket of ‘Pahari Paintings’.
  
• Can be divided into two groups-
  (i) Jammu or Dogra School: Northern Series
  (ii) Basholi and Kangra School: Southern Series

(i) Basholi School

• Rajput paintings from the 17th century represent the early phase.
• Characteristics include expressive faces with receding hairlines and large eyes resembling lotus petals, primarily using red, yellow, and green colors.
• They adopted Mughal painting techniques for clothing but also developed their own style.
• Utilized color contrast influenced by Malwa paintings.
• Raja Kirpal Singh was the first patron, commissioning illustrations for works like Bhanudatta’s Rasamajari, Gita Govinda, and Ramayana drawings.
• Devi Das, renowned for depicting Radha Krishna and creating portraits of kings in their livery and white garments, was one of the most famous painters.

(iii) Kangra School

• After the decline of the Mughal empire, Mughal-trained artists migrated to Kangra under Raja Govardhan Singh's patronage in 1774.
• This migration led to the establishment of the Guler-Kangra School of paintings, which initially evolved in Guler before spreading to Kangra.
• The school reached its peak under Raja Sansar Chand, known for paintings characterized by sensuality and intelligence.
• Popular subjects included Gita Govinda, Bhagwata Purana, Satsai of Biharilal, and Nal Damyanti, with love scenes of Krishna being particularly prominent.
• The paintings had a spiritual quality and often depicted otherworldly themes.
• "Twelve Months" was a renowned series illustrating the emotional impact of each month on human beings.
• This emotive style remained popular until the 19th century.
• The Guler-Kangra School served as the parent to other ateliers such as Kullu, Chamba, and Mandi.

(iv) Jammu or Dogra School of Painting (from 17th Century)

• Resembles the Kangra style of painting.
• The Shangri Ramayana, created in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, originated in Jammu with mythology as its theme.

(v) Mankot Paintings (from 17th Century)

• Found in Jammu and Kashmir, closely resembling the Basholi type of painting.
• Known for vivid colors and bold subjects.
• Initially focused on portraitures in the mid-17th century, later emphasizing naturalism and muted colors.

(vi) Guler School of Painting (from 18th Century)

• Derived from the word "Galwa," meaning cowherd, it shares similarities with Mughal Art.
• Characterized by strong strokes and fine, sensitive expressions.
• Mainly depicts Srimad Bhagawata, Bihari Satasai, and Gita Govinda.
• Features delicately rendered female figures with upturned noses and finely detailed hair.

(vii) Kullu-Mandi School of Painting (from 17th Century)

(a) Kullu Painting

• Similar to Basholi paintings, with painters from Basholi sent to Kullu to illustrate the life of Lord Rama.
• Produced the famous 'Shangri Ramayana' album depicting various events of Ramayana.
• Known for its use of dull and dark colors.

(b) Mandi Painting

• Evolved a new painting style from 1684 to 1727 under Raja Sidh Sen.
• Depicted the ruler as a colossal figure with exaggerated features.
• Mostly miniature paintings featuring Lord Shiva, parts of Bhagawat Gita, Lord Rama, and Lord Krishna.
• Characterized by dull colors and dark backgrounds.

(I) Ragamala Paintings

• Series of illustrative paintings from medieval India
• Based on Ragamala, meaning 'Garland of Ragas', depicting various Indian musical Ragas.
• Classical example of the fusion of art, poetry, and classical music.
• Created in most Indian schools of painting, starting in the 16th and 17th centuries.
• Named as Pahari Ragamala, Rajasthan or Rajput Ragamala, Deccan Ragamala, and Mughal Ragamala.
• Each raga is personified by a color, telling the story of a hero and heroine (nayaka and nayika) in a particular mood.
• Illustrates the season and time of day and night in which the raga is to be sung.
• Often associated with specific Hindu deities like Bhairava or Bhairavi to Shiva, Sri to Devi, etc.
• Six principal ragas in the Ragamala are Bhairava, Deepak, Sri, Malkaush, Megha, and Hindola.

(J) Miniatures in South India

• Developed in the early medieval period.
• Different from the north Indian schools because of the heavy use of gold.
• Painting divine creatures, unlike north which painted rulers.
• Some of the major schools are:

(a) Tanjore Paintings

• Renowned for its distinctive style of decorative paintings, supported by Maratha rulers in the 18th century.
• Unique for being crafted on glass and board instead of traditional cloth or vellum, employing vibrant color schemes and gold leaf.
• Utilized gemstones and cut glasses for embellishments, often featuring joyful depictions of Lord Krishna.
• Flourished under the patronage of Sarfoji Maharaj, a significant supporter of the arts.
• Continues to operate today, expanding its subjects to include various themes like birds, animals, and buildings.

(b) Mysore Paintings

• Sponsored by the rulers of Mysore province, enduring into the British period.
• Mainly focused on Hindu deities.
• Notable for incorporating two or more figures in each painting, with one figure dominating in size and color.
• Utilizes a unique technique involving 'gesso paste' made from zinc oxide and Arabic gum, providing a distinct base that imparts a sheen to the background.
• Contrasts the shiny background with subdued colors to balance the overall composition.

(c) Ganjifa Cards

• Ganjifa is a card game dating back to medieval times, popular in Mughal courts and traditionally hand-painted by artisans.
• Each suite of cards features a distinct color background.
• The tradition of Ganjifa Cards is even mentioned in the book "Baburnama."
• Mysore Ganjifa Cards or Paintings were granted the GI (Geographical Indication) status by the government of India in 2008.

Illustrated Manuscripts

• Illustrated Manuscripts are visual representations of poetic verses from epics and various literary or musical texts, with the verses written on the top in designated box-like spaces.
• These manuscripts were carefully planned, with thematic sets comprising multiple paintings or folios.
• They were highly prized possessions, often given as dowries to princesses upon marriage and exchanged as gifts among royalty and courtiers as tokens of appreciation.
• The tradition of illustrating palm-leaf Buddhist scriptures began with the Pala rulers of Bengal and Bihar, with a famous manuscript emerging during the reign of King Ramapala in the 11th century.
• Under Jainism, the act of donating illustrated manuscripts to monastery libraries, known as bhandars, was revered as a charitable and righteous deed.
• Early Jain manuscripts were typically created on palm leaves, transitioning to paper in the 14th century, and were adorned with lavish use of gold and lapis lazuli, reflecting the wealth and status of their patrons.
• These manuscripts depicted various themes including Tirthipatas, Mandalas, and secular stories.
• During the Mughal era, successive rulers contributed to the advancement of illustrated manuscripts, elevating their significance.

(A) Modern Paintings
(i) Company Paintings

• Emerged in the colonial period,
• Hybrid style- merged different styles (Rajput, Mughal and other Indian styles and European elements).
• Evolved when British Company officers employed painters, trained in Indian styles.
• Hence, mixed European tastes with Indian Training so-called the ‘Company Paintings’.
• Distinct because use of watercolour and appearance of linear perspective & shading.
• Originated in Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Patna, Varanasi and Thanjavur.
• Lord Impey and Marquess Wellesley patronised the painters.
• Painters painted ‘exotic’ flora and fauna of India.
• Most famous painters were Sewak Ram, Ishwari Prasad and Ghulam Ali Khan.
• This genre- prevalent till the 20th century.

(ii) Bazaar Paintings

• Influenced by European encounter.
• Different from Company paintings because it did not take any Indian influence but took the Roman and Greek influence.
• Made the painters copy Greek and Roman statues.
• Prevalent in Bengal & Bihar region.
• Made paintings on everyday bazaar (Indian bazaars with European background).
• Most famous genre- depicting Indian courtesans
• Dancing before British officials.
• Also painted religious themes.
• But didn’t allow figures of Indian Gods and Goddesses with more than two axes & elephant faces(Lord Ganesha) as they deviated from European notion of the natural human figurine.

(iii) Raja Ravi Verma

• One of India’s greatest painters.
• Originator of the school of modern painting.
• Called ‘modern’ because of the heavy influence of western techniques and themes.
• Brought together elements of South Indian painting with the western techniques.
• Belonged to Kerala and was dubbed as the ‘Raphael of the East’ because of his brilliant brush strokes and almost lifelike paintings.
• His very famous works- Lady in the Moonlight, Mother India, etc.
• Gained nationwide recognition for his paintings from Ramayana especially the one titled ‘Ravana Kidnapping Sita’.
• “Rang Rasiva” was the  film made on him.

(B) Bengal School of Art

• The Bengal School emerged in response to existing painting styles, focusing on simplicity.
• Abanindranath Tagore pioneered this movement in the early 20th century with his Arabian Night series, aiming to infuse Swadeshi values into Indian art and counter Western influence.
• Tagore's renowned painting "Bharat Mata" (1905) and Mughal-inspired artworks are notable examples of his contribution.
• The school rejected Raja Ravi Verma's art as they viewed it as imitative and Westernized.
• Nandalal Bose, another prominent figure, further developed Modern Indian Art, notably with his iconic sketch of Gandhi during the Dandi March.
• Bose's association with Santiniketan and his role in illustrating the original Constitution of India document are significant.
• Rabindranath Tagore, known for his distinct use of dominant black lines, created small-sized paintings that some link to his literary works.
• Other notable painters of the Bengal School include Asit Kumar Haldar, Manishi Dey, Mukul Dey, and Sunayani Devi.

(C) Cubist Style of Painting

• Inspired from the European Cubist movement, under which the objects were broken, analysed and then reassembled.
• Artists reconstructed this process through the use of abstract art forms & tried to achieve the perfect balance between line and colour.
• Most popular cubist artists in India- M.F Hussain,
• Made a series of paintings called ‘Personification of Romance’.
• He used the motif of a horse frequently to depict fluidity of motion, instead of abstract connotations.

(D) Progressive Artists Group

• Established in 1947, the Progressive Artists Group (PAG) emerged with a focus on progressive and bold themes in art.
• The group sought to blend these themes with softer and more abstract elements, although lacking uniformity among its members.
• Influenced by European Modernism, PAG was founded by Francis Newton Souza, with notable members including S.H Raza, H. A Gade, Ara, and M.F. Hussain.
• Their inaugural art exhibition took place in 1948 and received patronage from figures like Mulk Raj Anand.
• PAG played a pivotal role in fostering young talent, providing opportunities to painters such as Balraj Khanna, V.S Gaitonde, Biren De, Akbar Padamsee, and Tyeb Mehta.
• The group established galleries in both Delhi and Mumbai, furthering their influence on the Indian art scene.

Folk Paintings

Pichhwai Painting

• Originated in Rajasthan, particularly Nathdwara, known for intricate depictions of Lord Krishna in Vaishnavism.
• Primarily created for hanging in Hindu temples of the Pushtimarg Sampradaya, illustrating tales of Lord Krishna.
• Vallabhacharya, the founder of Pushtimarg Sampradaya, introduced Pichhwai art in the 16th century.
• Today, Pichhwai paintings have become a significant export product of Nathdwara.

Madhubani Painting

• Traditional art form practiced by women in Bihar, also known as Mithila Painting, with themes from the Ramayana.
• Depicts Hindu deities such as Krishna, Rama, Durga, and Shiva, along with symbolic elements like fish for good luck.
• Originally painted on walls using rice paste and vegetable colors, now transitioned to handmade paper, cloth, and canvas.
• Notable artists include Jagdamba Devi, Baua Devi, Bharti Dayal, Ganga Devi, Mahasundari Devi, and Sita Devi.

• A unique art from Bihar, word Tikuli is a local term for “Bindi” worn by women between their eyebrows. Under this Art, painting is done on hardboard and then it is cut in various shapes
• Thereafter, four to five enamel coats is applied on it, thereby giving it a polished surface.
• Madhubani motifs are used in these Tikuli Paintings.

Pattachitra

• It is the traditional painting of Odisha.
• Pattachitra comes from Sanskrit word Patta (canvas/cloth) and Chitra (picture), show a mix of classical and folk elements, with a bias towards the latter.
• The base of painting- treated cloth.
• Colours used from natural sources (like burnt coconut shells, Hingula, Ramaraja and lampblack).
• No pencil or charcoal use, rather brush used to draw outlines in red or yellow after which the colours are filled.
• Background decorated with foliage and flowers and paintings have an intricately worked frame.
• After finishing, coating of lacquer is  given for a glossy finish.

Patua Art

• Originated in Bengal around a thousand years ago, traditionally narrating Hindu mythological stories.
• Executed on scrolls or pats, often depicting political and social issues alongside religious narratives.
• Patuas, mostly Muslims, hail from districts like Medinipur, Murshidabad, North and South 24 Parganas, and Birbhum.

Kalamkari Painting

• Uses a bamboo pen to paint intricate designs, originating from Srikalahasti and Machilipatnam in Andhra Pradesh.
• Themes drawn from Hindu mythology, with two distinct styles - Srikalahasti freehand drawings and Machilipatnam prints.
• Utilizes vegetable dyes on cotton fabric, with each color symbolizing specific emotions or concepts.
• Received Geographical Indication status, with Srikalahasti paintings reflecting Hindu mythological inspiration and Machilipatnam influenced by Persian motifs.

Kalighat Painting

• Emerged around the Kalighat Temple in Kolkata during the 19th century, depicting Hindu deities and daily life scenes.
• Initially painted on cloth and hand-colored, gradually evolving to capture everyday life's essence.
• Influential on artists like Jamini Roy, portraying a simplistic yet expressive style.

Warli Painting

• Ancient tribal art from the Warli people, resembling Bhimbetka's mural paintings.
• Ritualistic depictions on walls using basic graphic vocabulary like triangles, circles, and squares.
• Typically represents daily life activities, festivals, and religious rituals with symbolic motifs.

Thangka Painting

• Reverential art form practiced in regions like Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Ladakh, and Arunachal Pradesh.
• Cotton canvas serves as the base for paintings, with natural vegetable or mineral dyes used for colors.
• Each color symbolizes specific emotions or concepts, with Thangkas often framed in colorful silk brocade.
• Historically made by Buddhist monks and ethnic groups, maintaining traditional techniques over generations.

Manjusha Paintings

• Originates from the Bhagalpur region of Bihar.
• Also known as Angika art, reflecting the cultural heritage of the Mahajan Pada.
• Often referred to as snake painting due to the prevalent snake motifs.
• Executed on boxes made of jute and paper, showcasing intricate designs.

Phad Painting

• Mainly practiced in Rajasthan, known for its scroll-type format.
• Primarily religious, featuring drawings of local deities such as Pabuji and Devnarayan.
• Uses vegetable colors on long cloth pieces called phads, typically ranging from 15 to 30 feet.
• Subjects characterized by large eyes and round faces, depicting joyful narratives and processions.

Cheriyal Scroll Paintings

• Indigenous to Telangana, part of Nakashi art tradition.
• Depicts continuous stories similar to comics or ballads by the Balladeer community.
• Themes revolve around Hindu Epics and Puranic stories, narrated alongside music.
• Often massive in size, reaching up to 45 feet, recognized with Geographical Indication status in 2007.

Pithora Paintings

• Created by tribal communities in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, serving religious and spiritual purposes.
• Typically painted on house walls to usher in peace and prosperity, associated with special family occasions.
• Commonly features depictions of animals, particularly horses, symbolizing strength and vitality.

Saura Paintings (Odisha)

• Produced by the Saura tribe of Odisha, resembling Warli paintings.
• Ritualistic mural paintings dedicated to Idital, the primary deity of the Sauras.
• Utilizes a primarily white palette against red or yellow backdrops, extracted from natural minerals and plants.
• Human figures portrayed with geometrical and stick-like features, with recent popularity in fashion designs featuring Saura motifs.