Nitin Singhania Summary: Trade, Traders and Cultural Exchange | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Introduction

There exists a profound connection between trade, trade routes, culture, and politics throughout history. While ancient Indian literature, such as the Periplas of the Erythraean Sea, provides limited information, texts like Mahaniddesa and Arthashastra shed light on ancient commercial activities and trade routes, both over land and sea.

• The establishment of the Roman Empire played a significant role in opening the Red Sea route, and archaeological findings from ancient Indian ports reveal substantial insights into the flourishing trade between India and the Roman Empire. Control over trade routes with the Roman Empire was a major factor behind the war between the Satvahanas and Sakas. Rajendra Chola's naval expedition to Suvarnabhumi was also motivated by trade.

• Mineral resources, agricultural growth, and surplus in the hinterland prompted rulers to prioritize commerce, overseas trade, and the development of commodity production and exchange. Vibrant trade activities were essential prerequisites for urban growth. According to Keralolpathi, numerous Brahmin settlements spread across South India, fostering agricultural proliferation. Technological advancements and strategic management facilitated cultivation growth, introducing a variety of crops. The expansion of land management and farming necessitated product exchanges in marketplaces, stimulating commercial activities. Abundant archaeological, epigraphic, and literary evidence illustrates the commercial contacts between the Roman world and South India.
• Arabs began engaging in swift trade activities in the western parts of the Indian Ocean since the reign of Bahram V (A.D. 420-39). Crangnnoore or Kodungalloor, alongside Barukaccha of Gujarat, was considered a crucial center of Roman trade. Both were located on the western coast of India during the author's visit in Periplus. Sangam literature attested to trade conducted by the Yavanas, with Kollam being a renowned trading center on the Malabar coast. The emergence of trade guilds, mercantile associations, and organizational aspects addressed issues associated with professional commercial activities.

Protohistoric to Vedic Periods

Nomadic individuals roamed in search of pastures for their cattle. Initially, commercial activities were limited, but as geographical knowledge expanded, civilization progressed, and trade activities began to flourish. Caravans emerged as a means to overcome the challenges of long-distance trade routes. Traces of fertile regions have been discovered in Kot-Diji and Quetta before the onset of the Indus Valley Culture.

• The dock excavated in Lothal stands as one of the earliest man-made docks to receive ships. Harappa and Mohenjodaro functioned as commercial cities, with numerous small ports, markets, and cities supporting their trade activities. Evidence of trade with India has been uncovered in old Babylonian inscriptions. Excavations in Lothal revealed three types of boats. Other ports of the Indus Valley Culture included Todio, Amra, and Lakhbawal, with specialized groups of artisans, particularly notable for bead production in Chanhudaro and Lothal.

• The primary imported items were precious metals, copper, and semi-precious stones. Lapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan (Shortughai and Badakhshan province), turquoise from Persia, and amethyst from Maharashtra. Main exported items included agricultural products, wheat, and oilseeds. Exchanges were conducted through the barter system. In the Rig Vedic period, trade was limited, and the barter system prevailed, with cows serving as a medium of exchange. Trade expanded in the later Vedic period, introducing other mediums like Niska, Hiranyapinda, and manas. Later Sambhitas confirm that sea trade was conducted by boats, with the Rigveda and Vajasaneyi Samhita emphasizing various technical terms related to navigation.

Age of the Mahajanapadas

During this period, when Buddha and Mahavira voiced their opposition to the Vedic religion, India was divided into sixteen Mahajanapadas, and constant warfare ensued among them. Ajatasatru wielded significant power, leading Magadha to become the mightiest empire. Udayibhadra, Ajatasatru's son, laid the foundation of Pataliputra, transforming the city into a major center for politics, commerce, and trade.

• The incessant wars between different Mahajanapadas were driven by political and economic motives. Jataka stories, Pali literature, and accounts from Panini provide various depictions of commerce, economic activities, and trade routes. Roads were equipped with tanks and wells for the convenience of travelers, while ferries facilitated river crossings. Despite numerous challenges, caravan leaders engaged in long-distance trade both inland and abroad, carrying Indian culture and adventurous spirit to foreign lands. At times, Bodhisattvas assumed the role of caravan masters.

• Indian merchants interacted with foreign traders at sea ports, engaging in mutual trade. Jataka stories depict numerous sea voyages and the challenges faced by Indian sailors. According to Jataka, Bharukachcha and Sopara were chief ports on the western coast, while Gambhira and Seriva ports were situated on the eastern coast. Varanasi gained fame for silk, and cotton textiles were significant export items. Sandalwood played a crucial role in both external and internal trade.

Mauryan Period

The well-developed agrarian economy provided a strong economic foundation for the Mauryan empire. The expansion of the commercial economy allowed them to broaden their resource base across the country. The Grand Route of India underwent significant changes from the fourth century B.C. to the first century B.C., driven by the development of the empire's organizations.

Organizations associated with Trade and Trade Routes

The Jataka stories mention caravan traders carrying large quantities of merchandise to various parts of the country, with security provided by the Mauryan rule. Important trade routes to West and Central Asia passed through north-west India along the river Ganges and the Himalayan foothills. Major centers included Rajagriha in Magadha, Kausambi near present-day Allahabad, and Pataliputra, the capital of the Mauryas. Various routes connected different regions, such as the northern route through Sravasti and Kapilavastu, the eastern route turning southwards to reach Andhra and Karnataka, and the eastern route connecting Tamralipti.

• From Kausambi, another route led westwards to Ujjain, connecting to the coast of Gujarat and regarded as Dakshinapatha. Craft production in north India was organized primarily on guild (sreni) lines. Officers such as the Superintendent of Commerce, Samsthadhyaksa, Akaradhyaksa, Sitadhyaksha, and Pautavadbyaksa played key roles in overseeing trade, mines, agriculture, and weights and measures in Pataliputra.

• During the later half of the Mauryan period, brisk sea trade flourished. Mauryan rulers were involved in shipbuilding and hired ships for commercial purposes. Trade routes via sea and rivers were considered cheaper than land routes. Dronamukha, a village where sea and land trade routes met, collected tolls. Haimavatamarga was a route from Balkh to India, used for trade in woollen cloths, horses, hides, and furs. Dakshinapatha facilitated trade in items like diamonds, precious stones, and pearls.

Merchandise

Arthashastra mentions the trade of precious and semi-precious stones from different places in India and foreign countries. Kerala coast was renowned for pearl trade, Sri Lanka for precious stones, and Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, and Burma for Ruby and Spinal Ruby. Vindhya Hills and Kerala produced crystal, and Sapphire and Amethyst were imported from Sri Lanka. High-quality diamonds came from Sabharashtra (Berar), and coral (Alakandaka) was imported from Alexandria. There was a great demand for aromatics, and various sandalwoods were traded from South India, Java, and Sumatra. Horses traded to the middle country came from Kamboja (Tajikistan) and Sindh.

Gupta Period

During the Gupta dynasty, industry and trade prospered, with a notable feature being the decline of Roman trade in this period. The Guptas issued a substantial number of gold coins, known as Dinars. Kamandaka's treatise, Nitisara, emphasized the significance of the royal treasury and outlined various sources of revenue.

• The Jambudvipaprajnapti and the Mahavastu from the Gupta period mentioned various guilds, including eighteen traditional guilds like potters, silk weavers (pattailla), cooks (sitvakara), and singers (gandhabba).

• Two distinct types of traders during the Gupta period were Sresti and Sarthavaha. Sresti was settled in a specific location, while Sarthavaha, known as caravan traders, traded merchandise to different places for profit. Trade items included horses, pepper, sandalwood, elephants, gold, and iron. While trade with the Roman Empire declined, South-East Asia became a trade center. Due to the efforts of Buddhist monks, Indian culture spread to Central Asia and China during the Gupta and post-Gupta period. Chinese pilgrims' accounts affirmed Indian ships frequently sailed to Indonesia and China, used both by Buddhist pilgrims and Indian traders. In the mid-seventh century, although the Chinese lost control in Central Asia, their relations with India were maintained through the sea route.

Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha

Two major trade routes in Ancient India were Uttarapatha in North and North-west India and Dakshinapatha in Central and South India. These routes facilitated the movement of people, ideas, and merchandise, fostering cultural exchanges.

• Uttarapatha connected Gandhara (present-day Kandahar, Afghanistan) in the North-west, passing through Taxila, Lahore, Delhi, Prayag, Varanasi, Nalanda, Pataliputra, and ending at the port of Tamralipta in the Bay of Bengal. The Himalayan section of the road was known as Himavatpatha, with milestones called Kos Minars, each marking one Kos (2 miles). These Minars were prevalent along Uttarapatha, particularly along the Grand Trunk Road during Sher Shah Suri's time. This road network played a crucial role in the rapid spread of Buddhism.
• The Dakshinapatha was the name of the southern highway, originating from Varanasi and connecting Ujjaini and the Narmada valley to Pratisthana (Paithan) in the Mahajanapada of Ashmaka. It also linked to roads leading to the Cholas, Cheras, and the Pandyas. Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha intersected at Prayag-Varanasi.

Indo—Roman Trade

Indo-Roman trade commenced through caravan routes via Asia Minor and the Middle East, circumventing the Red Sea around 30 BCE during the reign of Augustus and his conquest of Egypt. Early links between the Red Sea and India flourished from the 1st century BC, supported by evidence found in Tamil Sangam literature, Prakrit inscriptions, and numismatics.

• Roman demand for pepper, spices, pearls, semi-precious stones, and textiles from South Asia increased, leading to exchanges with high-value coins. Notable ancient texts discussing Indo-Roman trade include Strabo’s ‘Geographica,’ the Periplus Maris Erythraei, Pliny’s ‘Naturalis Historia,’ the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, and Ptolemy’s Geography (2nd century AD).
• There is evidence of animal trade between Indian harbors and Mediterranean ports. Roman ports involved in eastern trade included Arsinoe, Berenice, Myos Hormos, etc. Berenice, renowned for trade with Egypt, was a starting point for many Roman traders in the 1st century CE.

• Regional ports engaged in Roman trade included Barbaricum (Karachi), Suufxagoura, Barygaza (Bharuch in Gujarat), Muziris, Kaveripattinam, and Arikamedu (Tamil Nadu). Muziris, a major trade center, facilitated commerce between the Chera kingdom and the Roman Empire. Indo-Roman trade declined in the mid-3rd century due to a crisis in the Roman Empire and Huna invasions in India.
• The discovery of monsoon winds led to improvements in commerce. The Cheras monopolized the pepper trade, while the Pandyas dominated the pearl trade. Black pepper was a significant commodity in Indo-Roman trade, bought by Greek merchants for gold. Rome exported glassware, lamps, corals, and wine to India, while India exported ginger, cardamom, teakwood for ships, sandalwood, ebony, black wood, rosewood, and more to Rome.

Muziris Papyrus

The Muziris Papyrus was a loan agreement between an Alexandria financier and a merchant for an expedition to Muziris, offering insights into Kerala’s maritime and cultural links in the 2nd century AD.

Tabula Peutingeriana or Peutinger Table

An ancient Roman road map (4th century AD) illustrating the road network of the Roman Empire.

Poompuhar

Poompuhar, also known as Kaveripoompattinam, referenced in the Tamil epic Manimekalai, had seaborne commercial links with Southeast Asia and Egypt. Recent studies suggest Poompuhar might be more than 15,000 years old, challenging the widely believed age of 2,500 years.

Ancient Silk Road and Cultural Exchange

The ancient Silk Road, active from the 2nd century BC to the mid-15th century, was a network of trade routes connecting the Indian subcontinent, China, Central Asia, and the Mediterranean. Ships also sailed directly across the Indian Ocean following annual trade winds.

• The name Silk Road originated from the lucrative trade in silk or textiles, primarily from China. The road network started with the Han dynasty's expansion into Central Asia around 114 BCE. These routes were essential for trading textiles, spices, precious and semi-precious stones, and other luxury items highly valued in the ancient world.
• In India, the ancient Silk Road covered regions such as Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, Punjab, Maharashtra, Puducherry, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.

• There are 12 main Silk Road sites on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including Ruins of Ancient Vaishali (Bihar), Remains of Vikramshila Ancient University (Bihar), Buddhist remains of Kushinagar (UP), Sravasti (UP), Kaushambi (UP), Ahichhatra (UP), Ancient Site and Buddhist Stupa (Punjab), Arikamedu (Puducherry), Excavated Remains of Kaveripattinam (Tamil Nadu), Ancient monastery and stupa at Harwan (Jammu & Kashmir), Burud Kot (Maharashtra), and Indraprastha (Delhi). These Silk Road sites played a significant role in cultural exchange, facilitating the interchange of ideas, customs, traits, religions, and artistic techniques. Buddhism, for example, spread to Central Asia and China through the Silk Road.
• Ladakh was a central point on the Silk Road between India and Central Asia, serving as an essential center for Buddhism. Many Buddhist monasteries and cultural sites in Ladakh were connected to the Silk Road.