Notes: Emile Durhkeim - Ritzer Update | Sociology Mains Optional for UPSC 2024 PDF Download

 Page 1


 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM 
From Ritzer 
Introduction 
• According to Durkheim society and the large scale structures of society impact the 
thoughts and actions of individual. So most of his study is based on the social structure and 
culture. 
• Durkheim is the one who differentiated sociology as a subject from psychology and 
philosophy via the medium of empirical research (based on testing or experience). 
• His study is based on positivism means to study the society on the same principles and 
concepts as used in study of natural sciences. 
• His major study is based on moral issues of society. 
• He focused more on studying the causes and functions of social structures. 
SOCIAL FACTS 
• Social facts are the social structures and cultural norms that constrain people in all areas of 
social life. 
• He said that Social facts are external to and coercive of actors and to support this he said 
that social factors should be treated as things. 
• This means that we must study social facts by acquiring data from outside of our own 
minds through observation and experimentation. The empirical study of social facts as 
things sets Durkheimian sociology apart from more philosophical approaches.    
• Social facts are external and coercive whereas psychological facts are clearly 
internal(inherited) 
• Further he classifies social facts as  
 
Material social facts: These are real, material entities and clearly define the externality of 
the social facts. Architecture and law are two examples of material social facts 
 
Non material social facts: These are the ones which do not exist as material entities and 
found only in the mind of actors for e.g. culture, norms etc.These are most important and 
crucial components of sociology but it is bit harder for them to qualify the condition of 
externality. However Durkheim cleared this condition by defining non material social facts 
as the ones external to and coercive of another aspect of mental process-psychological 
facts. 
Page 2


 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM 
From Ritzer 
Introduction 
• According to Durkheim society and the large scale structures of society impact the 
thoughts and actions of individual. So most of his study is based on the social structure and 
culture. 
• Durkheim is the one who differentiated sociology as a subject from psychology and 
philosophy via the medium of empirical research (based on testing or experience). 
• His study is based on positivism means to study the society on the same principles and 
concepts as used in study of natural sciences. 
• His major study is based on moral issues of society. 
• He focused more on studying the causes and functions of social structures. 
SOCIAL FACTS 
• Social facts are the social structures and cultural norms that constrain people in all areas of 
social life. 
• He said that Social facts are external to and coercive of actors and to support this he said 
that social factors should be treated as things. 
• This means that we must study social facts by acquiring data from outside of our own 
minds through observation and experimentation. The empirical study of social facts as 
things sets Durkheimian sociology apart from more philosophical approaches.    
• Social facts are external and coercive whereas psychological facts are clearly 
internal(inherited) 
• Further he classifies social facts as  
 
Material social facts: These are real, material entities and clearly define the externality of 
the social facts. Architecture and law are two examples of material social facts 
 
Non material social facts: These are the ones which do not exist as material entities and 
found only in the mind of actors for e.g. culture, norms etc.These are most important and 
crucial components of sociology but it is bit harder for them to qualify the condition of 
externality. However Durkheim cleared this condition by defining non material social facts 
as the ones external to and coercive of another aspect of mental process-psychological 
facts. 
 
 
He used these social Facts to describe Social reality. 
Durkheim listed social facts into the below mentioned 2 categories in descending order of 
generality as follows: 
Material social facts: 
1. Society 
2. Structural components of society(for e.g. church and state) 
3. Morphological components of society(for e.g. population distribution, channels of 
communication, and housing arrangements) 
Non material social facts: 
1. Morality 
2. Collective conscience 
3. Collective representation 
4. Social currents 
  
Page 3


 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM 
From Ritzer 
Introduction 
• According to Durkheim society and the large scale structures of society impact the 
thoughts and actions of individual. So most of his study is based on the social structure and 
culture. 
• Durkheim is the one who differentiated sociology as a subject from psychology and 
philosophy via the medium of empirical research (based on testing or experience). 
• His study is based on positivism means to study the society on the same principles and 
concepts as used in study of natural sciences. 
• His major study is based on moral issues of society. 
• He focused more on studying the causes and functions of social structures. 
SOCIAL FACTS 
• Social facts are the social structures and cultural norms that constrain people in all areas of 
social life. 
• He said that Social facts are external to and coercive of actors and to support this he said 
that social factors should be treated as things. 
• This means that we must study social facts by acquiring data from outside of our own 
minds through observation and experimentation. The empirical study of social facts as 
things sets Durkheimian sociology apart from more philosophical approaches.    
• Social facts are external and coercive whereas psychological facts are clearly 
internal(inherited) 
• Further he classifies social facts as  
 
Material social facts: These are real, material entities and clearly define the externality of 
the social facts. Architecture and law are two examples of material social facts 
 
Non material social facts: These are the ones which do not exist as material entities and 
found only in the mind of actors for e.g. culture, norms etc.These are most important and 
crucial components of sociology but it is bit harder for them to qualify the condition of 
externality. However Durkheim cleared this condition by defining non material social facts 
as the ones external to and coercive of another aspect of mental process-psychological 
facts. 
 
 
He used these social Facts to describe Social reality. 
Durkheim listed social facts into the below mentioned 2 categories in descending order of 
generality as follows: 
Material social facts: 
1. Society 
2. Structural components of society(for e.g. church and state) 
3. Morphological components of society(for e.g. population distribution, channels of 
communication, and housing arrangements) 
Non material social facts: 
1. Morality 
2. Collective conscience 
3. Collective representation 
4. Social currents 
  
 
 
DIVISION OF LABOUR: 
Durkheim considers it as material social fact because it is external in nature. 
There  are two types of society: 
1. Primitive society (mechanical solidarity) 
2. Modern society (organic solidarity) 
• In Primitive society (mechanical solidarity) every person tends to be jack of all trades and 
hence people are generally the same, so they stay connected by choice. 
• In modern society (organic solidarity) every person has some specialization and so 
everyone is interdependent, so they are connected by need. 
• But Durkheim says that as population rises there is a conflict for sharing of limited 
resources. 
• Now in primitive society there occurs competition and leads to conflict. 
• But in modern society since every other person has different task to perform so there is 
less competition and better utilization of resources and coexistence is more peaceful. 
• So to achieve this peaceful coexistence there needs to be transition from mechanical to 
organic solidarity, this is achieved through other material social fact i.e. dynamic density. 
Dynamic density: an increase in number of people and an increase in the interactions among 
them lead to change from mechanical to organic solidarity because together they bring about 
more competition for scarce resources and a more intense struggle for survival among the 
various parallel and similar components of primitive society. 
Law: 
• Mechanical solidarity is characterized by repressive laws because people are very similar in 
this type of society, and because they tend to believe very strongly in a common morality, 
any offense against their shared value system is likely to be of significance to most 
individuals.  
Since everyone feels the offense and believes deeply in the common morality, a wrongdoer 
is likely to be punished severely for any action that offends the collective moral system. 
 
• Organic solidarity is characterized by restitutive law, which requires offenders to make 
restitution for their crimes. In such societies, offenses are more likely to be seen as 
committed against a particular individual or segment of society than against the moral 
system itself.  
Page 4


 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM 
From Ritzer 
Introduction 
• According to Durkheim society and the large scale structures of society impact the 
thoughts and actions of individual. So most of his study is based on the social structure and 
culture. 
• Durkheim is the one who differentiated sociology as a subject from psychology and 
philosophy via the medium of empirical research (based on testing or experience). 
• His study is based on positivism means to study the society on the same principles and 
concepts as used in study of natural sciences. 
• His major study is based on moral issues of society. 
• He focused more on studying the causes and functions of social structures. 
SOCIAL FACTS 
• Social facts are the social structures and cultural norms that constrain people in all areas of 
social life. 
• He said that Social facts are external to and coercive of actors and to support this he said 
that social factors should be treated as things. 
• This means that we must study social facts by acquiring data from outside of our own 
minds through observation and experimentation. The empirical study of social facts as 
things sets Durkheimian sociology apart from more philosophical approaches.    
• Social facts are external and coercive whereas psychological facts are clearly 
internal(inherited) 
• Further he classifies social facts as  
 
Material social facts: These are real, material entities and clearly define the externality of 
the social facts. Architecture and law are two examples of material social facts 
 
Non material social facts: These are the ones which do not exist as material entities and 
found only in the mind of actors for e.g. culture, norms etc.These are most important and 
crucial components of sociology but it is bit harder for them to qualify the condition of 
externality. However Durkheim cleared this condition by defining non material social facts 
as the ones external to and coercive of another aspect of mental process-psychological 
facts. 
 
 
He used these social Facts to describe Social reality. 
Durkheim listed social facts into the below mentioned 2 categories in descending order of 
generality as follows: 
Material social facts: 
1. Society 
2. Structural components of society(for e.g. church and state) 
3. Morphological components of society(for e.g. population distribution, channels of 
communication, and housing arrangements) 
Non material social facts: 
1. Morality 
2. Collective conscience 
3. Collective representation 
4. Social currents 
  
 
 
DIVISION OF LABOUR: 
Durkheim considers it as material social fact because it is external in nature. 
There  are two types of society: 
1. Primitive society (mechanical solidarity) 
2. Modern society (organic solidarity) 
• In Primitive society (mechanical solidarity) every person tends to be jack of all trades and 
hence people are generally the same, so they stay connected by choice. 
• In modern society (organic solidarity) every person has some specialization and so 
everyone is interdependent, so they are connected by need. 
• But Durkheim says that as population rises there is a conflict for sharing of limited 
resources. 
• Now in primitive society there occurs competition and leads to conflict. 
• But in modern society since every other person has different task to perform so there is 
less competition and better utilization of resources and coexistence is more peaceful. 
• So to achieve this peaceful coexistence there needs to be transition from mechanical to 
organic solidarity, this is achieved through other material social fact i.e. dynamic density. 
Dynamic density: an increase in number of people and an increase in the interactions among 
them lead to change from mechanical to organic solidarity because together they bring about 
more competition for scarce resources and a more intense struggle for survival among the 
various parallel and similar components of primitive society. 
Law: 
• Mechanical solidarity is characterized by repressive laws because people are very similar in 
this type of society, and because they tend to believe very strongly in a common morality, 
any offense against their shared value system is likely to be of significance to most 
individuals.  
Since everyone feels the offense and believes deeply in the common morality, a wrongdoer 
is likely to be punished severely for any action that offends the collective moral system. 
 
• Organic solidarity is characterized by restitutive law, which requires offenders to make 
restitution for their crimes. In such societies, offenses are more likely to be seen as 
committed against a particular individual or segment of society than against the moral 
system itself.  
 
 
Because there is a weak common morality, most people do not react emotionally to a 
breach of the law. 
 
The monitoring of repressive laws is largely in the hands of the masses. 
The monitoring of restitutive laws is largely in the hands of the specialized agencies (like police, 
courts). 
 
 
  
Page 5


 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM 
From Ritzer 
Introduction 
• According to Durkheim society and the large scale structures of society impact the 
thoughts and actions of individual. So most of his study is based on the social structure and 
culture. 
• Durkheim is the one who differentiated sociology as a subject from psychology and 
philosophy via the medium of empirical research (based on testing or experience). 
• His study is based on positivism means to study the society on the same principles and 
concepts as used in study of natural sciences. 
• His major study is based on moral issues of society. 
• He focused more on studying the causes and functions of social structures. 
SOCIAL FACTS 
• Social facts are the social structures and cultural norms that constrain people in all areas of 
social life. 
• He said that Social facts are external to and coercive of actors and to support this he said 
that social factors should be treated as things. 
• This means that we must study social facts by acquiring data from outside of our own 
minds through observation and experimentation. The empirical study of social facts as 
things sets Durkheimian sociology apart from more philosophical approaches.    
• Social facts are external and coercive whereas psychological facts are clearly 
internal(inherited) 
• Further he classifies social facts as  
 
Material social facts: These are real, material entities and clearly define the externality of 
the social facts. Architecture and law are two examples of material social facts 
 
Non material social facts: These are the ones which do not exist as material entities and 
found only in the mind of actors for e.g. culture, norms etc.These are most important and 
crucial components of sociology but it is bit harder for them to qualify the condition of 
externality. However Durkheim cleared this condition by defining non material social facts 
as the ones external to and coercive of another aspect of mental process-psychological 
facts. 
 
 
He used these social Facts to describe Social reality. 
Durkheim listed social facts into the below mentioned 2 categories in descending order of 
generality as follows: 
Material social facts: 
1. Society 
2. Structural components of society(for e.g. church and state) 
3. Morphological components of society(for e.g. population distribution, channels of 
communication, and housing arrangements) 
Non material social facts: 
1. Morality 
2. Collective conscience 
3. Collective representation 
4. Social currents 
  
 
 
DIVISION OF LABOUR: 
Durkheim considers it as material social fact because it is external in nature. 
There  are two types of society: 
1. Primitive society (mechanical solidarity) 
2. Modern society (organic solidarity) 
• In Primitive society (mechanical solidarity) every person tends to be jack of all trades and 
hence people are generally the same, so they stay connected by choice. 
• In modern society (organic solidarity) every person has some specialization and so 
everyone is interdependent, so they are connected by need. 
• But Durkheim says that as population rises there is a conflict for sharing of limited 
resources. 
• Now in primitive society there occurs competition and leads to conflict. 
• But in modern society since every other person has different task to perform so there is 
less competition and better utilization of resources and coexistence is more peaceful. 
• So to achieve this peaceful coexistence there needs to be transition from mechanical to 
organic solidarity, this is achieved through other material social fact i.e. dynamic density. 
Dynamic density: an increase in number of people and an increase in the interactions among 
them lead to change from mechanical to organic solidarity because together they bring about 
more competition for scarce resources and a more intense struggle for survival among the 
various parallel and similar components of primitive society. 
Law: 
• Mechanical solidarity is characterized by repressive laws because people are very similar in 
this type of society, and because they tend to believe very strongly in a common morality, 
any offense against their shared value system is likely to be of significance to most 
individuals.  
Since everyone feels the offense and believes deeply in the common morality, a wrongdoer 
is likely to be punished severely for any action that offends the collective moral system. 
 
• Organic solidarity is characterized by restitutive law, which requires offenders to make 
restitution for their crimes. In such societies, offenses are more likely to be seen as 
committed against a particular individual or segment of society than against the moral 
system itself.  
 
 
Because there is a weak common morality, most people do not react emotionally to a 
breach of the law. 
 
The monitoring of repressive laws is largely in the hands of the masses. 
The monitoring of restitutive laws is largely in the hands of the specialized agencies (like police, 
courts). 
 
 
  
 
 
ANOMIE: 
? It occurs when individuals don’t face sufficient moral constraints and don’t have a clear 
concept of what is and what is not proper and acceptable behavior. 
? Durkheim classifies anomie as a social pathology caused due to rise of organic solidarity in 
modern society. 
? Primitive society has more collective morality but the modern society is more anomic due 
to the increase of isolation and decrease of regulation. 
COLLECTIVE CONSCIENCE: 
? The totality of beliefs and sentiments common to average citizens of the same society 
forms a determinate system which has its own life; one may call it the collective or common 
conscience. 
It is, thus, an entirely different thing from particular consciences, although it can be 
realized only through them. 
? People in primitive society had a more powerful and shared collective conscience but its 
weak in modern society, because people in modern society are held together by need. 
 
COLLECTIVE REPRESENTATION: 
? It is a subset of collective conscience. 
? It is narrower than collective conscience but broader than individual conscience. 
? It includes common beliefs and norms of society for individual components like family, 
occupation, state, education, religion, etc. 
SOCIAL CURRENTS: 
? Social facts “which do not present themselves in this already crystallized form” are social 
currents. 
? For example “the great waves of enthusiasm, indignation, and pity” that are produced in 
public gatherings. Although social currents are less concrete than other social facts, they 
are nevertheless social facts because they cannot be reduced to the individual.  
 
We are swept along by such social currents, and this has a coercive power over us even if 
we become aware of it only when we struggle against the common feelings.