Notes: Enquiry/Empirical Evidence | Social Studies & Pedagogy Paper 2 for CTET & TET Exams - CTET & State TET PDF Download

Empirical evidence refers to information obtained through observation or experimentation. Scientists record and analyze data as a central process of scientific methodology, involving the development of assumptions relevant to the topic under investigation. Through empirical research, analysts collect relevant data and observe how this data can support or refute their theories. This approach prioritizes evidence to develop and evaluate explanations for scientifically oriented questions.

Enquiry Based Learning

Enquiry Based Learning involves questioning students to assess their knowledge and understanding levels. It is closely related to the concept of 'experience'. This learning approach is driven by a process of inquiry, engaging students with complex issues that allow for various responses. Students take responsibility for selecting lines of inquiry and the methods used, drawing on existing knowledge and identifying their learning needs. Enquiry based learning encourages active exploration and the search for new evidence.

Objectives of Enquiry

• Significantly increases content knowledge.
• Impacts skills applicable in diverse situations.
• Addresses multiple learning styles.
• Teaches problem-solving.
• Improves critical thinking skills.
• Promotes the transfer of concepts to new problem situations.
• Teaches students how to learn and fosters self-directed learning skills.
• Develops student ownership of their enquiry and enhances interest in the subject matter.

Key Components of the Enquiry Process

The key components of the enquiry process include:

• Review Prior Knowledge: Teachers engage students in discussing their existing knowledge to create connections with the topic. This personal connection increases motivation and aids in understanding.
• Provide Background Information: Teachers offer background information on the subject through various resources such as articles, books, exhibits, photographs, recordings, and websites. Clear expectations are set for students regarding tasks and roles.
• Establish a General Topic of Enquiry: A broad problem question or topic guides students in selecting specific enquiries, such as exploring environmental impacts or understanding natural disasters like tsunamis.

Structure of Enquiry

The structure of enquiry can be categorized into the following types:

• Presentation of Problem: Students are presented with a challenge or problem to solve, stimulating their interest.
• Inquiry and Investigation: Students accept the challenge and begin searching for solutions through various methods, including data collection, analysis, and hypothesis formation.
• Organization of Information: Collected information is organized and explained, with results and conclusions derived from the data.
• Inquiry Process Analysis: The process followed by students is analyzed to determine the effectiveness of their approach.
• Evaluation of Process: Teachers evaluate the process and draw conclusions based on the outcomes.

Establish and Communicate the Enquiry Presentation Framework to Students

An example framework for presenting an enquiry includes:

• State the problem question.
• Develop a debatable proposition.
• Provide background information.
• Support the proposition with facts, statistics, examples, expert authority, and logic.
• Refer back to expected outcomes and the enquiry framework for alignment.
• Ask guiding questions to refine students' thinking.
• Offer support technology and design tools.
• Encourage peer coaching and training within teams.
• Organize forums for student presentations involving various stakeholders.
• Facilitate student participation in action projects linking learning to specific actions.

Empirical Evidence

Empirical evidence in the social sciences is diverse and is produced through various methods, including:

• Collection of physical artifacts in archaeology.
• Conducting census in demography.
• Mathematical modeling in economics.
• Thought experimentation in history.
• Expert judgment in political science.
• Laboratory experimentation in psychology.
• Causal modeling in sociology, and so on.

Scientific evidence has three connotations:

1. Observable Outcomes of Scientific Tests: Such as experiments, statistical analyses, and surveys.
2. An Indication or a Sign: Signifying a reason to believe or negate a scientific hypothesis.
3. A Ground for Belief: Furnishing proof or good reason to believe or negate a hypothesis.

Induction and Deduction Method

The concept of evidence is closely related to confirmation and induction. Induction refers to reasoning from evidence to hypothesis, enlarging what is known. Unlike deductive reasoning, which proceeds from a general claim to a specific one, reasoning from evidence is fallible.

Various principles of induction and deduction methods include:

1. Categorical Induction: Inferring the truth of a hypothesis from evidence.
2. Enumerative Induction: Inferring from observed instances to a generalization.
3. Eliminative Induction: Inferring the truth of a hypothesis by eliminating other possibilities, as advocated by Sherlock Holmes.

Exploration or Research

Exploration or research is a process through which students acquire new knowledge by taking special interest in a subject. This method, proposed by Professor Henry Edward Armstrong, encourages students to research as much as possible, aligning with Herbert Spencer's idea that children should be taught and encouraged to research extensively.

Research is viewed as a process of self-discovery, where children study, observe, and inspect facts themselves to determine truths and rules.

Merits of Research

• Research motivates students to learn by doing and fosters scientific interest and vision.
• It cultivates a habit of self-study among students.
• Students remain active and acquire knowledge permanently.
• Research instills a habit of hard work in students.
• It fosters self-discipline, self-control, and self-confidence in children.
• Success in research inspires enthusiasm and motivation in children.

Limitations of Research

Research has several limitations, including:

• It may not be suitable for smaller classes due to the lack of necessary logical and observational skills in young children.
• It may not effectively facilitate progress for slower learners, as the pace of the course progresses gradually.
• While suitable for talented children, it may not be ideal for the entire class.
• Primary level children may struggle to analyze problems effectively.
• Research may take longer than anticipated, testing the patience of both students and teachers.
• Experimental equipment and materials for research can be costly.
• Research often requires longer periods of time, making it challenging to complete within typical class durations.

Inference to the Best Explanation

Proponents of inference to the best explanation infer the truth of a hypothesis based on two considerations:

1. The hypothesis explains the evidence.
2. Among alternative hypotheses, it is the one that scores the best on explanatory merit.

Types of Inference

1. Descriptive Inference: This type of inference relies on observations, established facts, and background knowledge to establish facts about society.
2. Explanatory Inference: Accurate descriptive inference lays the groundwork for further explanations of social phenomena. The causal model is widely accepted, where causes precede effects under certain conditions, and the relationship between cause and effect is invariant.