Notes: Indian Foreign Policy | Political Science & International Relations: Mains Optional - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 2


                                            
 
• What is Foreign Policy? 
• Foreign policy is defined as a set of general objectives that guide the activities and 
relationships of one state in its interactions with other states. The two principal foreign 
policy goals of national interest are security and prosperity. 
• The idea of foreign policy has been explored since ancient times with works such as 
Thucydides’ work on the Peloponnesian war or Kautilya’s Arthashastra. A number of 
factors including geography, history, socio- cultural milieu, economy etc play a role in 
shaping foreign policy. 
• A key ingredient of foreign policy is diplomacy which involves using various instruments 
so as to achieve foreign policy initiatives. These may include a variety of tools such as 
negotiations, dialogues, treaties, public opinion, media or even war. 
• The following factors as the key determinants of India’s foreign policy: 
• Geography: Geography is considered one of the most crucial components of making of 
India’s foreign policy. In fact, Rajiv Sikri argues the very conception of India as a nation- 
state historically was a product of its geography- "Hindustan,” or the abode of the 
Hindus, so called by invaders for whom ‘Hindus’ were the people living beyond the first 
major natural barrier, the river Sindhu or Indus. 
• Kautilya’s conception of foreign policy was an extension of this geopolitics in the form 
of mandalas.” One can change history, but not geography.” 
• Similarly, Sikri argues that India was never an aggressive power since it had nothing to 
gain by making forays beyond its natural frontiers. Trade and cultural contacts across 
the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea were mostly peaceful interactions. The only 
threats and invasions India periodically faced were from marauders from the 
northwest. 
• In today’s world, India’s geography poses three principal foreign policy challenges: 
o One, whereas the modern Indian state requires fixed, determinable borders, the 
inhabitants of these amorphous frontier zones have traditionally had, and do 
indeed need, flexible borders. Trying to demarcate a historically non-existent 
border gives rise to border disputes as, for example, with China. 
o Two, today’s political borders of South Asia are artificial. India has been divided 
in the past, but never so irrationally as it has been since 1947. India’s neighbours 
want to keep their distance from India in order to assert and preserve their 
sovereignty. 
o Three, India is boxed in – by Pakistan on the west and Bangladesh on the east. 
Page 3


                                            
 
• What is Foreign Policy? 
• Foreign policy is defined as a set of general objectives that guide the activities and 
relationships of one state in its interactions with other states. The two principal foreign 
policy goals of national interest are security and prosperity. 
• The idea of foreign policy has been explored since ancient times with works such as 
Thucydides’ work on the Peloponnesian war or Kautilya’s Arthashastra. A number of 
factors including geography, history, socio- cultural milieu, economy etc play a role in 
shaping foreign policy. 
• A key ingredient of foreign policy is diplomacy which involves using various instruments 
so as to achieve foreign policy initiatives. These may include a variety of tools such as 
negotiations, dialogues, treaties, public opinion, media or even war. 
• The following factors as the key determinants of India’s foreign policy: 
• Geography: Geography is considered one of the most crucial components of making of 
India’s foreign policy. In fact, Rajiv Sikri argues the very conception of India as a nation- 
state historically was a product of its geography- "Hindustan,” or the abode of the 
Hindus, so called by invaders for whom ‘Hindus’ were the people living beyond the first 
major natural barrier, the river Sindhu or Indus. 
• Kautilya’s conception of foreign policy was an extension of this geopolitics in the form 
of mandalas.” One can change history, but not geography.” 
• Similarly, Sikri argues that India was never an aggressive power since it had nothing to 
gain by making forays beyond its natural frontiers. Trade and cultural contacts across 
the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea were mostly peaceful interactions. The only 
threats and invasions India periodically faced were from marauders from the 
northwest. 
• In today’s world, India’s geography poses three principal foreign policy challenges: 
o One, whereas the modern Indian state requires fixed, determinable borders, the 
inhabitants of these amorphous frontier zones have traditionally had, and do 
indeed need, flexible borders. Trying to demarcate a historically non-existent 
border gives rise to border disputes as, for example, with China. 
o Two, today’s political borders of South Asia are artificial. India has been divided 
in the past, but never so irrationally as it has been since 1947. India’s neighbours 
want to keep their distance from India in order to assert and preserve their 
sovereignty. 
o Three, India is boxed in – by Pakistan on the west and Bangladesh on the east. 
Without their cooperation, India cannot meaningfully extend its overland reach 
and influence. 
• Strategic Culture and History: India’s strategic culture has been shaped by its history, 
philosophy and traditions. Ancient India saw realist texts on foreign policy with 
emphasis on expansion of National Interest such as Kautilya’s Arthashastra and 
Kamandaki’s Nitisara. 
• At the same time epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata emphasised on the idea of 
‘Dharma’, thereby imbibing the Indian foreign policy with a streak of idealism. This 
idealism was carried forward in the philosophy of non-violence and Vasudeva 
Kutumbakam preached by Gandhi. 
• This utopianism shaped Nehru’s foreign policy which in the first few decades after 
Independence were non-alignment, anti-colonialism, anti-racialism, non-violence, 
disarmament, and peace making. 
• However, scholars like Aakriti Tandon and Arul Louis point to the emergence of a ‘Modi 
Doctrine’ in recent Jmes which marks a decisive break from India’s Nehruvian past and 
focuses on: 
1. replacing Cold War tactics with open dialogue and engagement and 
2. replacing vestiges of colonialism with a focus on democratisation—by building on 
the Indian tradition of Vasudevya kutumbakam (the world is one and hence stands 
to lose/gain together). 
• Sneh Mahajan underlines the impact of the ‘legacy of Raj’ on India’s foreign policy 
especially considering the territorial demarcation and partition were a colonial 
enterprise as well as the inheritance of foreign policy structure and institutions. 
According to Mahajan even the ‘style’ of diplomacy was a colonial legacy. 
• Economic Considerations: Sanjaya Baru points towards the economic imperatives that 
shaped India’s foreign policy. Baru points how in the post-independence era, the 
emphasis on self-reliance and development through planning were a part of Nehruvian 
idealism. 
o Baru writes that NAM was a tactical policy responding to India’s developmental 
needs and political compulsions. While India’s private sector remained open to 
engagement with USA, the government built public sector capabilities with the 
help of Soviet Union. 
o The advent of liberalization era accompanied the collapse of Soviet Union and 
rise of USA as the sole hegemon. It witnessed a change in the approach of India 
towards open trade and economy with India becoming one of the founding 
members of the WTO. 
Page 4


                                            
 
• What is Foreign Policy? 
• Foreign policy is defined as a set of general objectives that guide the activities and 
relationships of one state in its interactions with other states. The two principal foreign 
policy goals of national interest are security and prosperity. 
• The idea of foreign policy has been explored since ancient times with works such as 
Thucydides’ work on the Peloponnesian war or Kautilya’s Arthashastra. A number of 
factors including geography, history, socio- cultural milieu, economy etc play a role in 
shaping foreign policy. 
• A key ingredient of foreign policy is diplomacy which involves using various instruments 
so as to achieve foreign policy initiatives. These may include a variety of tools such as 
negotiations, dialogues, treaties, public opinion, media or even war. 
• The following factors as the key determinants of India’s foreign policy: 
• Geography: Geography is considered one of the most crucial components of making of 
India’s foreign policy. In fact, Rajiv Sikri argues the very conception of India as a nation- 
state historically was a product of its geography- "Hindustan,” or the abode of the 
Hindus, so called by invaders for whom ‘Hindus’ were the people living beyond the first 
major natural barrier, the river Sindhu or Indus. 
• Kautilya’s conception of foreign policy was an extension of this geopolitics in the form 
of mandalas.” One can change history, but not geography.” 
• Similarly, Sikri argues that India was never an aggressive power since it had nothing to 
gain by making forays beyond its natural frontiers. Trade and cultural contacts across 
the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea were mostly peaceful interactions. The only 
threats and invasions India periodically faced were from marauders from the 
northwest. 
• In today’s world, India’s geography poses three principal foreign policy challenges: 
o One, whereas the modern Indian state requires fixed, determinable borders, the 
inhabitants of these amorphous frontier zones have traditionally had, and do 
indeed need, flexible borders. Trying to demarcate a historically non-existent 
border gives rise to border disputes as, for example, with China. 
o Two, today’s political borders of South Asia are artificial. India has been divided 
in the past, but never so irrationally as it has been since 1947. India’s neighbours 
want to keep their distance from India in order to assert and preserve their 
sovereignty. 
o Three, India is boxed in – by Pakistan on the west and Bangladesh on the east. 
Without their cooperation, India cannot meaningfully extend its overland reach 
and influence. 
• Strategic Culture and History: India’s strategic culture has been shaped by its history, 
philosophy and traditions. Ancient India saw realist texts on foreign policy with 
emphasis on expansion of National Interest such as Kautilya’s Arthashastra and 
Kamandaki’s Nitisara. 
• At the same time epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata emphasised on the idea of 
‘Dharma’, thereby imbibing the Indian foreign policy with a streak of idealism. This 
idealism was carried forward in the philosophy of non-violence and Vasudeva 
Kutumbakam preached by Gandhi. 
• This utopianism shaped Nehru’s foreign policy which in the first few decades after 
Independence were non-alignment, anti-colonialism, anti-racialism, non-violence, 
disarmament, and peace making. 
• However, scholars like Aakriti Tandon and Arul Louis point to the emergence of a ‘Modi 
Doctrine’ in recent Jmes which marks a decisive break from India’s Nehruvian past and 
focuses on: 
1. replacing Cold War tactics with open dialogue and engagement and 
2. replacing vestiges of colonialism with a focus on democratisation—by building on 
the Indian tradition of Vasudevya kutumbakam (the world is one and hence stands 
to lose/gain together). 
• Sneh Mahajan underlines the impact of the ‘legacy of Raj’ on India’s foreign policy 
especially considering the territorial demarcation and partition were a colonial 
enterprise as well as the inheritance of foreign policy structure and institutions. 
According to Mahajan even the ‘style’ of diplomacy was a colonial legacy. 
• Economic Considerations: Sanjaya Baru points towards the economic imperatives that 
shaped India’s foreign policy. Baru points how in the post-independence era, the 
emphasis on self-reliance and development through planning were a part of Nehruvian 
idealism. 
o Baru writes that NAM was a tactical policy responding to India’s developmental 
needs and political compulsions. While India’s private sector remained open to 
engagement with USA, the government built public sector capabilities with the 
help of Soviet Union. 
o The advent of liberalization era accompanied the collapse of Soviet Union and 
rise of USA as the sole hegemon. It witnessed a change in the approach of India 
towards open trade and economy with India becoming one of the founding 
members of the WTO. 
o India’s new path was also impacted by the rise of China as an open economy and 
trading nation. The increased openness also increased the “outward orientation” 
of Indian businesses with organisations like FICCI and CII engaging in trade and 
economic diplomacy. The centrality of economics in Modi’s policy has been 
pointed out by Schaffer and Schaffer. 
• Style of Leadership: David Mitchell in his work analyses the Prime Ministerial 
Leadership Styles and its impact on foreign policy. While geopolitical circumstances 
surrounding prime ministers like Nehru and Indira Gandhi have changed and the 
political constraints have been altered, but all have consistently exhibited what are 
termed “strategic” or “opportunistic” leadership styles. 
o Harsh Pant in his book India’s Foreign Policy: Modi Era argues that the advent of 
Modi’s leadership marked a new style in foreign policy with greater assertiveness, 
with India shedding its identity of non-aligned and building strong partnerships 
with U.S. allies in the region including Japan, Australia and Vietnam while taking 
a strong stance against China and Pakistan. 
• Global and Regional Challenges: According to Rajiv Sikri changing global power 
equations also lead to change in India’s foreign policy. he relative weight of the US has 
diminished and it is less self-assured and more inward looking. 
• Europe is grappling with Brexit, the rise of right-wing nationalism, and a flood of 
immigrants. China is the new pretender that relentlessly pursues its ‘China Dream’ of 
Asian, and eventually global, domination. Russia has regained much of its self- 
confidence. 
• At the same time, regions of West Asia, North Africa as well as Asia are is in upheaval, 
with rampaging terrorism, fundamentalism, sharp regional rivalries, as well as many so- 
called ‘failed’ and ‘failing’ states. Then there is the rise of pandemic. All these 
international scenarios impact India’s foreign policy. 
• It has been rightly said that nations have no permanent friends or enemies, only 
permanent interests. India’s relationships and priorities have changed over time with 
changes in international trends to ensure both human and material resources to 
achieve its foreign policy goals. 
• Domestic politics: Domestic politics and pressures also play a critical role in shaping 
foreign policy and vice versa points out Shashi Tharoor. Similarly, Schaffer and 
Schaffer point how domestic pressures can constrain foreign policy through the 
examples of resolution on Sri Lanka adopted by UNHRC and the issue of enclaves with 
Bangladesh as well as the water sharing of Teesta. Manoj Joshi argues how the 
expansion of media has also led to a close interplay between public opinion and foreign 
Page 5


                                            
 
• What is Foreign Policy? 
• Foreign policy is defined as a set of general objectives that guide the activities and 
relationships of one state in its interactions with other states. The two principal foreign 
policy goals of national interest are security and prosperity. 
• The idea of foreign policy has been explored since ancient times with works such as 
Thucydides’ work on the Peloponnesian war or Kautilya’s Arthashastra. A number of 
factors including geography, history, socio- cultural milieu, economy etc play a role in 
shaping foreign policy. 
• A key ingredient of foreign policy is diplomacy which involves using various instruments 
so as to achieve foreign policy initiatives. These may include a variety of tools such as 
negotiations, dialogues, treaties, public opinion, media or even war. 
• The following factors as the key determinants of India’s foreign policy: 
• Geography: Geography is considered one of the most crucial components of making of 
India’s foreign policy. In fact, Rajiv Sikri argues the very conception of India as a nation- 
state historically was a product of its geography- "Hindustan,” or the abode of the 
Hindus, so called by invaders for whom ‘Hindus’ were the people living beyond the first 
major natural barrier, the river Sindhu or Indus. 
• Kautilya’s conception of foreign policy was an extension of this geopolitics in the form 
of mandalas.” One can change history, but not geography.” 
• Similarly, Sikri argues that India was never an aggressive power since it had nothing to 
gain by making forays beyond its natural frontiers. Trade and cultural contacts across 
the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea were mostly peaceful interactions. The only 
threats and invasions India periodically faced were from marauders from the 
northwest. 
• In today’s world, India’s geography poses three principal foreign policy challenges: 
o One, whereas the modern Indian state requires fixed, determinable borders, the 
inhabitants of these amorphous frontier zones have traditionally had, and do 
indeed need, flexible borders. Trying to demarcate a historically non-existent 
border gives rise to border disputes as, for example, with China. 
o Two, today’s political borders of South Asia are artificial. India has been divided 
in the past, but never so irrationally as it has been since 1947. India’s neighbours 
want to keep their distance from India in order to assert and preserve their 
sovereignty. 
o Three, India is boxed in – by Pakistan on the west and Bangladesh on the east. 
Without their cooperation, India cannot meaningfully extend its overland reach 
and influence. 
• Strategic Culture and History: India’s strategic culture has been shaped by its history, 
philosophy and traditions. Ancient India saw realist texts on foreign policy with 
emphasis on expansion of National Interest such as Kautilya’s Arthashastra and 
Kamandaki’s Nitisara. 
• At the same time epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata emphasised on the idea of 
‘Dharma’, thereby imbibing the Indian foreign policy with a streak of idealism. This 
idealism was carried forward in the philosophy of non-violence and Vasudeva 
Kutumbakam preached by Gandhi. 
• This utopianism shaped Nehru’s foreign policy which in the first few decades after 
Independence were non-alignment, anti-colonialism, anti-racialism, non-violence, 
disarmament, and peace making. 
• However, scholars like Aakriti Tandon and Arul Louis point to the emergence of a ‘Modi 
Doctrine’ in recent Jmes which marks a decisive break from India’s Nehruvian past and 
focuses on: 
1. replacing Cold War tactics with open dialogue and engagement and 
2. replacing vestiges of colonialism with a focus on democratisation—by building on 
the Indian tradition of Vasudevya kutumbakam (the world is one and hence stands 
to lose/gain together). 
• Sneh Mahajan underlines the impact of the ‘legacy of Raj’ on India’s foreign policy 
especially considering the territorial demarcation and partition were a colonial 
enterprise as well as the inheritance of foreign policy structure and institutions. 
According to Mahajan even the ‘style’ of diplomacy was a colonial legacy. 
• Economic Considerations: Sanjaya Baru points towards the economic imperatives that 
shaped India’s foreign policy. Baru points how in the post-independence era, the 
emphasis on self-reliance and development through planning were a part of Nehruvian 
idealism. 
o Baru writes that NAM was a tactical policy responding to India’s developmental 
needs and political compulsions. While India’s private sector remained open to 
engagement with USA, the government built public sector capabilities with the 
help of Soviet Union. 
o The advent of liberalization era accompanied the collapse of Soviet Union and 
rise of USA as the sole hegemon. It witnessed a change in the approach of India 
towards open trade and economy with India becoming one of the founding 
members of the WTO. 
o India’s new path was also impacted by the rise of China as an open economy and 
trading nation. The increased openness also increased the “outward orientation” 
of Indian businesses with organisations like FICCI and CII engaging in trade and 
economic diplomacy. The centrality of economics in Modi’s policy has been 
pointed out by Schaffer and Schaffer. 
• Style of Leadership: David Mitchell in his work analyses the Prime Ministerial 
Leadership Styles and its impact on foreign policy. While geopolitical circumstances 
surrounding prime ministers like Nehru and Indira Gandhi have changed and the 
political constraints have been altered, but all have consistently exhibited what are 
termed “strategic” or “opportunistic” leadership styles. 
o Harsh Pant in his book India’s Foreign Policy: Modi Era argues that the advent of 
Modi’s leadership marked a new style in foreign policy with greater assertiveness, 
with India shedding its identity of non-aligned and building strong partnerships 
with U.S. allies in the region including Japan, Australia and Vietnam while taking 
a strong stance against China and Pakistan. 
• Global and Regional Challenges: According to Rajiv Sikri changing global power 
equations also lead to change in India’s foreign policy. he relative weight of the US has 
diminished and it is less self-assured and more inward looking. 
• Europe is grappling with Brexit, the rise of right-wing nationalism, and a flood of 
immigrants. China is the new pretender that relentlessly pursues its ‘China Dream’ of 
Asian, and eventually global, domination. Russia has regained much of its self- 
confidence. 
• At the same time, regions of West Asia, North Africa as well as Asia are is in upheaval, 
with rampaging terrorism, fundamentalism, sharp regional rivalries, as well as many so- 
called ‘failed’ and ‘failing’ states. Then there is the rise of pandemic. All these 
international scenarios impact India’s foreign policy. 
• It has been rightly said that nations have no permanent friends or enemies, only 
permanent interests. India’s relationships and priorities have changed over time with 
changes in international trends to ensure both human and material resources to 
achieve its foreign policy goals. 
• Domestic politics: Domestic politics and pressures also play a critical role in shaping 
foreign policy and vice versa points out Shashi Tharoor. Similarly, Schaffer and 
Schaffer point how domestic pressures can constrain foreign policy through the 
examples of resolution on Sri Lanka adopted by UNHRC and the issue of enclaves with 
Bangladesh as well as the water sharing of Teesta. Manoj Joshi argues how the 
expansion of media has also led to a close interplay between public opinion and foreign 
policy making in India. 
• Tanvi Madan argues that with the expansion of India’s interests abroad, there has been 
a blurring of vertical and horizontal policy making lines. M.C. Miller underlines the most 
important bodies involved in making of foreign policy as the Prime Minister’s Office, 
Ministry of External Affairs and the National Security Council. 
• Apart from this, Rudra Chaudhary underlines the crucial role played by the Parliament 
and various states in foreign policy. Rajiv Kumar underlines the growing role of private 
sector while Amitabh Mattoo and Rory Metcalf analyse the role (however, limited) of 
universities and think tanks in the making of policy. 
• Amb. (Retd.) Debnath Shaw argues that no single institution or personality can be 
attributed with having exclusive rights or influence in area of foreign policy. While at 
different times, different institutions have been dominant, there are several 
contributing actors, who collectively build up what we tend to term as India’s Foreign 
Policy Consensus, which has the backing of the majority of the political leadership of 
the country. 
• Ministry of External Affairs: MEA is one of the pivotal players in India’s external or 
foreign relations. The ‘Allocation of Business Rules’ of GOI empower MEA with the task 
of planning, formulating and managing India’s external relations with other nations to 
protect and promote national interests in the global stage. 
• The Indian Foreign Service (IFS) officials, selected through the competitive 
examinations conducted by the Union Public Service Commission, primarily man the 
MEA led by the Foreign Secretary. The IFS officials are sent abroad to man the 
Embassies in different foreign capitals. Besides other functions, the embassies actually 
act as the official centres for collecting information on developments in the foreign 
countries. 
• The working of the MEA is often shaped by the personality of the Minister of Ministry 
of External Affairs as well. PM Nehru himself was India’s first foreign minister and 
infused it with building long term relations with Global South. In recent times, former 
MEA, the late Sushma Swaraj offered a personal touch with her twitter diplomacy while 
MEA S. Jaishankar as a career diplomat and foreign secretary brings expertise to the 
table. 
• Cabinet/Cabinet Committees: The Cabinet being the top most decision making body of 
the government, determines the course of India’s external relations by giving necessary 
directions.