Notes: Post Independence - 5 | Post Independence History for UPSC Mains PDF Download

The Janata Interregnum - 1977-84

• After being released from jails, opposition leaders of various hues - Congress (O), Socialists, Bhartiya Lok Dal etc - formed Janata Party and won the general election of 1977. 
• In 7 Northern seats, Congress only got 2 seats and was virtually wiped out. Surprisingly, in Southern states, performance of Congress improved as Emergency was less severely implemented in these states and 20 Point Program was better implemented. 
• However, victory of Janata Party didn't mean a smooth transition as there was a tiff over post of PM among Morarji Desai, Jagjeevan Ram and Charan Singh in which Desai emerged as winner. 
• New central government dismissed governments in 9 Congress ruled states and embarked on a journey to undo the work done by previous government. 44 th Amendment tried to restore the constitutional framework and also restored power of judicial review.

New policies of the Government took a U-turn from the planned approach of the earlier government. It stressed on decentralized planning, replacing heavy industries with cottage industry and promoting a rich peasantry led agriculture growth fuelled by generous subsidies and shift of resources from industry to rural sector. 

It also launched a radical 'Food for Work' program to improve rural employment and also boost rural infrastructure. It was especially well implemented in West Bengal. It also tried to re-orient its foreign policy to genuine non­alignment and tried to go closer to the US and the UK and moderating relations with the USSR. However, there was no fundamental new vision and economy didn't improve. Floods and draughts made situation even worse and budget deficit increased.

• Janata government was a heterogeneous group of opportunist politicians and it soon showed signs of disintegration. Social tensions were also on the rise as there was confusion in rural areas over new policies of Janata government which were opposite to policies of Indira government. Many landlords tried to take their lands back. Communal incidents were also on rise.
• The Janata Party government could not bring about a fundamental change in policies from those pursued by the Congress. The Janata Party split and the government which was led by Morarji Desai lost its majority in less than 18 months. Another government headed by Charan Singh was formed on the assurance of the support of the Congress party. But the Congress party later decided to withdraw its support with the result that the Charan Singh government could remain in power for just about four months.

Indira and Rajiv after Janata Government

• Congress (R) was further split in 1978 as Congress (I) - I for Indira, and Congress (U) - U for Devraj Urs. Fresh Lok Sabha elections were held in January 1980 in which the Janata Party suffered a comprehensive defeat, especially in north India where it had swept the polls in 1977. Congress party led by Indira Gandhi nearly repeated its great victory in 1971. 
• When Indira came to power, she also dismissed governments in 9 states. The experience of 1977-79 taught another lesson in democratic politics: governments that are seen to be unstable and quarrelsome are severely punished by the voters.
• In second term also Congress was beset with organizational weakness as Congress was driven by her charisma and there was little focus on institution building. The government also achieved some success on foreign affairs front. 
• It hosted 7th non-alignment summit in 1983. She didn't condemn the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan, but asked Soviets to withdraw as soon as possible. She criticized the proxy intervention of the US and Pakistan in Afghanistan. She also tried to normalize relations with the US, Pakistan and China.
• She was killed on 31st October 1984 and North India was swept in anti-Sikh riots as a reaction as she was killed by her Sikh bodyguards who revenged her ordering of 'Operation Bluestar' and desecration of their holy shrine. Rajiv Gandhi was appointed as PM and in the next general elections party performed exceptionally well riding on the sympathy wave.
• Another big tragedy that hit India was gas leak in Union Carbide factory in Bhopal which left more than 2000 dead and also left thousands maimed. Compensation for this accident was long delayed and was highly inadequate.
• Rajiv Gandhi paid great attention towards technological advancement and as a result, he launched six technological missions. They were target oriented projects designed to make India modern. In most of the cases, millennium was set as the deadline. 
• Man behind devising these mission was 'Sam Pitroda' - a US trained Indian entrepreneur who also became chairman of Telecom Commission. Most important of these was 'Drinking Water Mission' and it aimed at providing potable drinking water to every village as by that time only 20% village were covered under drinking water projects. The idea was to use satellite, geology, biochemistry and civil engineering to identify and extract water and make it suitable for drinking. 
• Another mission was 'Literacy Mission' as still almost 60% of population was illiterate. It also aimed at using television, audio-video cassettes etc to make a dent in illiteracy. Third was 'Immunization Mission of Pregnant Women and Children'. 
• Fourth was 'White Revolution' aimed at improving per capita availability of milk by improving yield and cattle variety. Fifth as the 'Edible Oil Mission' as at that time India used to import edible oil. Sixth mission was 'Rural Telephony Mission' which aimed at providing one telephone in every village. He also pushed ahead with investment in computer technology despite its criticism and he saw it as a crucial for bringing in communication revolution.
• He also took steps to liberalise the control over economy, increase exports and cut imports. He also took steps to strengthen Panchayati Raj Institutions. He also launched 'Jawahar Gramin Yojna' to mark 100th birth anniversary of Jawahar Lal Nehru. 
• He also launched a new education policy and specific steps were taken in form of 'Operation Blackboard' - to provide basic amenities in schools. 'Navodya Vidyalas' as residential schools with free and quality education in rural areas. National Perspective Plan for Women was also launched in 1988. Anti-dowry legislations were also strengthened.
• Government also paid attention to environment and a new ministry was created. A mega Ganga cleaning project was also launched. Seven zonal cultural centers were also setup. Efforts were also taken to introduce openness in political and bureaucratic system. Anti Defection Act was passed in 1985. Lok Adalats and Consumer Courts were also setup.
• On foreign policy front also several steps were taken. Rajiv Gandhi extensively toured other countries. India firmly stood against nuclear proliferation and apartheid. Rajiv Gandhi signed 'Delhi Declaration' in 1986 with Gorbachev for nuclear disarmament. The US remained skeptical of India and didn't respond to Indian initiatives much and even denied Indian requests of supercomputers. 
• On the other hand relations with the USSR improved, Rajiv met Gorbachev 8 times in 5 years. He also visited China in 1988, the first after Nehru's visit in 1954. India even refrained from condemning Tiananmen Square massacre of 1989 in China. He also visited Pakistan and again first to do so after Nehru.
• However, relations with neighbors deteriorated. Bangladesh was growing more fundamentalist, Nepal imposed heavy duties on Indian goods and discounted Chinese goods and asked Indian residents to obtain work permits for working in Nepal.
• However, most important development was regarding Sri Lanka. In 1983, thousands of Sri Lankan Tamils fled to Tamil Nadu when Sri Lankan government launched assault on LTTE base in Jaffana. Public opinion gathered around cause of Tamilians and voices were raised for Indian intervention. 
• India, as a result started supplies of food and other necessities in areas under blockade. Sri Lankan PM also approached Indian government for help in the matter and as a result, 'Indo-Sri Lanka Accord' as signed in 1987 which underlined that north-eastern Tamil dominated areas will be merged into a single province and considerable devolution of power will happen. 
• It was also decided that LTTE should lay down its arms. However, LTTE remained adamant to lay down arms. In this situation, Tamil President sought help of Indian army and Indian troops were sent which resulted in a fiasco for India. Indian troops find it difficult to deal with a guerilla warfare. 
• They also became unpopular among both the Sri Lankan Tamils and larger population as well due to presence of a foreign army. The new PM Premdasa also asked Indian Army to leave, making situation more difficult for India and as a result India withdrew her forces gradually.
• Rajiv Gandhi also tried to give a new lease of life to NAM by giving it a new purpose of nuclear disarmament. He also gave go ahead of to Modernization of armed forces which led to extensive spending on defense. However, it was also the time of unraveling of defense scandals like Bofors deal scandal, HDW Submarine scandal etc. Bofors scandal was snowballed so much that Giani Zail singh was tempted to suspend Rajiv Gandhi on dual grounds of corruption and not able to keep inform president of important developments.
• On social front as well, Rajiv Gandhi failed a crucial test in Shah Bano Case, 1987 in which Supreme Court provided maintenance to an old divorcee Muslim woman. Initially government welcomed the decision, but later buckled under the pressure from the orthodox Muslim groups who called it an interference in their personal law and as a result Rajiv Gandhi made a U-turn and brought a legislation which overturned Supreme Court decision. 
• The case first estranged Muslims when decision came, and later Hindus when government failed to show some nerve in direction of uniform civil code. Economy registered growth on one hand, was also marred by high deficit and debt.

Post Rajiv Gandhi & Till  Now 

• V P Singh who had been a close ally of Rajiv in Congress at that time had launched crusades against corruption, but after differences with Rajiv was expelled from Congress. He now launched vigorous anti-corruption campaigns to expose Congress. 
• He formed a coalition of Congress dissidents, BJP and other parties in form of 'National Front' which came to power in 1989 elections with V P Singh as PM and Devi Lal as deputy PM and a lot of sulking leaders like Chander Shekhar, Ajit Singh (son of Charan Singh) etc. 
• It was a rag-tag coalition and couldn't take many effective decisions. Situation in Kashmir deteriorated at that time and Advani announced Rath Yatra at the same time. 
• Another political move was implementation of Mandal commission in August 1990 which was appointed by Janata Government and reservation was allowed for OBC. It led to widespread dismay and protests from parties as well by public as unlike in case of SCs and STs, there were no conclusive proof of backwardness of OBCs. 
• CPM instead advocated economic criteria. Many forward castes also formed caste associations with a renewed vigour and caste identities came to fore once again. It was a socially divisive decision which pitted one caste against the other on the name of social justice and unfurled an unending race to bottom for reservation. 
• No empirical examination was done to judge the efficacy of reservation policy in existence since 40 years. Consideration of reservation as only strategy of social justice prevented other strategies of social justice. However, SC stayed implementation of the decision. When Adavani's Rath Yatra reached Bihar, he was arrested and communal sentiments flared up and BJP threatened to pull support on this issue.
• Some MPs withdrew from Janata Party which was part of National Front and formed government with support of Congress and with Chandra Sekhar as PM. 
• However, soon elections were announced and Rajiv Gandhi was killed by alleged LTTE suicide bombers when he was on an election tour in Sri Perumbudur near Chennai. Congress emerged biggest party without majority and formed government with Narsimha Rao as PM and it lasted for a full five year term and it undertook most radical of economic reforms widely known as 'liberalization of Indian economy' partly under Western and Brettonwoods Institutions pressure. 
• However, Babri demolition and large scale rioting also happened during this government. Hawala scandal also emerged during this government which laid foreign exchange violation charges against many Congress and other leaders. 
• In next elections in 1996, Congress got lesser seats and BJP more than Congress, but no party got majority. BJP formed a highly short lived government which was followed by United Front government led by H D Dev Gowda and supported by Congress and left parties. 
• However, Congress pulled support mid way leading to formation of another United Front government, again with Congress support with I K Gujaral as prime minister. Support was again withdrawn and elections were held in 1998 leading to formation of NDA government. It also didn't last long and elections were held again and NDA again came to power in 1999 followed by UPA in 2004 and 2009.
• New steps taken were - Right to Information Act 2005 by efforts of Aruna Roy led Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS), MNREGA was also brought in 2005 and so was Domestic Violence Act 2005, reservation for OBCs in higher education was started from 2007,Right to Education Act was brought in 2009.
• On foreign policy front, relations with Western powers were re-oriented in a liberalized economy as there was no Soviet Union to fall back upon now. However, Russia was still a formidable power and India continued to maintain good relations with her in her own self­interest and similar approach was followed with other erstwhile members of the USSR. 
• While still supporting the Palestinian cause, India also started formal links with Israel in first half of 1990s. New trade blocks were coming up and India failed to take stoke of the situation. It missed the ASEAN bus and had to satisfy herself by being an observer in it. 
• At the same time it also initiated its 'Look East Policy' as well. Japan had been a big donor and was also seen as a check on China. India had supported historically Vietnam in war with the US. It had also supported Indonesian struggle against Dutch aggression in past. 
• India had also supported against French and American colonialism in Indo-China (Thailand, Laos and Cambodia). India was committed for a multi-polar world and democratization of international relations. India also opposed American role in Kosovo as it was interference on the name of protecting human rights and could have detrimental precedents for a multi-cultural country like India and China.
• In 1998, India also conducted her second nuclear test and declared herself a nuclear state and it attracted worldwide criticism. Sanctions were put by West and aid was suspended by countries like Japan and Norway. 
• France, Germany and Russia continued their normal relations. India's position on acquiring nuclear deterrent is justified on many counts. First, post-World War dynamics have changed substantially and have created an iniquitous and unethical global order. 
• Non Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is highly flawed in its design and it serves interests of already existing five nuclear powers. It discourages new tests and acquirement of nuclear weapon by the other states, but is silent on existing stockpile of 5 powers. 
• Similarly, Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) is also discriminatory. So, non-nuclear countries have virtually no voice and India refused to bow down to such a regime by refusing to sign these two treaties. Secondly, it had two hostile neighbors with nuclear power and their growing nexus. 
• Further, nuclear powered American vessels are also not far from its territory at times. So, there was no talk of 'peaceful purpose' as was there during Indira Gandhi's time. Development of missile program now effectively complements Indian nuclear capabilities. This time many government persons also openly claimed that the tests were directed against threat from China and Pakistan and this irked China to some extent. Pakistan also conducted a nuclear test following India's test.
• Atmosphere with Pakistan seemed cordial as Vajpayee government initiated talks and started Bus Diplomacy, Pakistan on the other hand was sending its troops and Mujahideens to infiltrate into India. 
• When snows started to melt in summer of 1999, it was discovered that Pakistani infiltrators have intruded deep into LoC and even occupied several strategic peaks in Kargil area. India mounted a massive counter offensive from a disadvantaged military position. Pleasantly surprisingly, international opinion was in favor of India and even countries like the US, China and EU condemned Pakistani aggression. 
• The US stance could be partially explained by growing threat of Islamic terrorism. China see in India a tacit ally against growing hegemony of the US which was witnessed during India's criticism of the US in Kosovo crisis. 
• In Pakistan, fallout of the Kargil war was removal of Nawaz Sharif by General Musharraf and it became apparent that Kargil conspiracy was largely hatched by the army establishment keeping the political bosses in the dark. 
• In spite of such a betrayal, India invited Pakistani president Musharraf to Agra Summit in 2001. Vajpayee wanted to make talks broad based, but Musharraf wanted to focus on Kashmir only. Musharraf utilized the limelight to drive home the point that insurgency in Kashmir is basically an indigenous freedom struggle. Indian credibility vis-a-vis Kashmir increased considerably when free elections were held in 2002.
• Sanctions imposed by the United States on India were gradually revoked in wake of new global dynamics post 9/11 attacks and a dialogue also moved in the direction of Civil Nuclear Deal or 123 Agreement and high tech trade. 
• In 2005, after extensive negotiation, the US agreed to tinker domestic laws and international regimes to enable full civilian nuclear cooperation with India. India in turn agreed to separate its civil and military nuclear programs and place its civil nuclear facilities under watch of IAEA, continue its self-declared moratorium on tests and also ensure non-proliferation. 
• Concerns were raised that if India suspended its voluntary moratorium, the US will immediately stop all the help and will even ask for return of material that it had earlier supplied. It was also argued that civil and nuclear programs cannot be separated. 
• However, government argued that the deal is crucial to meet burgeoning energy needs of India and by this agreement, India was de-facto accepted as a nuclear weapon state. Further, the agreement provided advance rights of re-processing. India was also guaranteed of assured fuel supply and strategic fuel reserve. The US also assured that it will not hinder the growth of India's nuclear weapon program.

Problems of North - Eastern States

• In the North-East, regional aspirations reached a turning point in the 1980s. This region now consists of seven States, also referred to as the 'seven sisters'. 
• A small corridor of about 22 kilometers connects the region to the rest of the country. Tripura, Manipur and Khasi Hills of Meghalaya were erstwhile Princely States which merged with India after independence. 
• The entire region of North-East has undergone considerable political reorganization. Nagaland State was created in 1960; Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura in 1972 while Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram became separate States only in 1986.
• The partition of India in 1947 had reduced the North-East to a land locked region and affected its economy. Cut off from the rest of India, the region suffered neglect in developmental terms. Its politics too remained insulated. 
• At the same time, most States in this region underwent major demographic changes due to influx of migrants from neighboring States and countries. People of Assam also felt robbed as huge mineral, oil and forest resources were appropriated by the center and outsiders, but little share was given to the state. 
• The isolation of the region, its complex social character and its backwardness compared to other parts of the country have all resulted in the complicated set of demands from different states of the North-East. 
• The vast international border and weak communication between the North-East and the rest of India have further added to the delicate nature of politics there. Problem in Assam became even more acute after 1971 war which saw huge influx of refugees in Assam who gradually became permanent residents and were even issued voter cards and ration cards.

Three issues dominate the politics of North-East - demands for autonomy, movements for secession, and opposition to 'outsiders'. Major initiatives on the first issue in the 1970s set the stage for some dramatic developments on the second and the third in the 1980s.

I. Demands for autonomy - At independence the entire region except Manipur and Tripura comprised the State of Assam. Demands for political autonomy arose when the non-Assamese felt that the Assam government was imposing Assamese language on them. 

• There were opposition and protest riots throughout the State. Leaders of the major tribal communities wanted to separate from Assam. They formed 'All Party Hill Leaders Conference' in 1960. They demanded a tribal State to be carved out of Assam. Finally instead of one tribal State, several States got carved out of Assam. At different points of time the Central Government had to create Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh out of Assam. Tripura and Manipur were upgraded into States too. 
• The reorganization of the North-East was completed by 1972. But this was not the end of autonomy demands in this region. In Assam, for example, communities like the Bodos, Karbis and Dimasas wanted separate States. It was not possible to go on making smaller and yet smaller States. Therefore, some other provisions of our federal set up were used to satisfy their autonomy demands while remaining in Assam. Karbis and Dimasas have been granted autonomy under District Councils while Bodos were recently granted Autonomous Council.

II. Secessionist movements - After independence, the Mizo Hills area was made an autonomous district within Assam. Some Mizos believed that they were never a part of British India and therefore did not belong to the Indian union. But the secession movement gained popular support after the Assam government failed to respond adequately to the great famine of 1959 in Mizo hills. 

• The Mizos' anger led to the formation of the Mizo National Front (MNF) under the leadership of Laldenga. In 1966 the MNF started an armed campaign for independence. Thus, started a two decade long battle between Mizo insurgents and the Indian army. 
• The MNF fought a guerilla war, got support from Pakistani government and secured shelter in the then East Pakistan. The Indian security forces countered it with a series of repressive measures of which the common people were the victims. At one point even Air Force was used. 
• These measures caused more anger and alienation among the people. At the end of two decades of insurgency everyone was a loser. This is where maturity of the political leadership at both ends made a difference. Laldenga came back from exile in Pakistan and started negotiations with the Indian government. 
• In 1986 a peace agreement was signed between Rajiv Gandhi and Laldenga. As per this accord Mizoram was granted full- fledged statehood with special powers and the MNF agreed to give up secessionist struggle. 
• Laldenga took over as the Chief Minister. This accord proved a turning point in the history of Mizoram. Today, Mizoram is one of the most peaceful places in the region and has taken big strides in literacy and development. The story of Nagaland is similar to Mizoram, except that it started much earlier and has not yet had such a happy ending. 
• Led by Angami Zaphu Phizo, a section of the Nagas declared independence from India way back in 1951. Phizo turned down many offers of negotiated settlement. The Naga National Council launched an armed struggle for sovereignty of Nagas. After a period of violent insurgency a section of the Nagas signed an agreement with the government of India but this was not acceptable to other rebels. The problem in Nagaland still awaits a final resolution.

III. Movements against outsiders - The Assam Movement from 1979 to 1985 is the best example of such movements against 'outsiders'. The Assamese suspected that there were huge numbers of illegal Bengali Muslim settlers from Bangladesh. 

• There was widespread poverty and unemployment in Assam despite the existence of natural resources like oil, tea and coal. It was felt that these were drained out of the State without any commensurate benefit to the people. 
• In 1979 the 'All Assam Students' Union' (AASU), a students' group not affiliated to any party, led an anti-foreigner movement. The movement demanded that all outsiders who had entered the State after 1951 should be sent back. 
• Eventually after six years of turmoil, the Rajiv Gandhi- led government entered into negotiations with the AASU leaders, leading to the signing of an accord in 1985. According to this agreement those foreigners who migrated into Assam during and after Bangladesh war and since, were to be identified and deported. 
• With the successful completion of the movement, the AASU and the Asom Gana Sangram Parishad organized themselves as a regional political party called Asom Gana Parishad (AGP). It came to power in 1985 with the promise of resolving the foreign national problem as well as to build a 'Golden Assam'. Assam accord brought peace and changed the face of politics in Assam, but it did not solve the problem of immigration.