Old NCERT Gist (RS Sharma): The Later Vedic Phase - Transitions From State and Social Formation | Additional Study Material for UPSC PDF Download

Background

During this time, the Aryans moved eastwards and occupied western and eastern UP (Kosala) and Bihar.

Political Structure

• Kingdoms like Mahajanapadas were formed by amalgamating smaller kingdoms.
• King’s power increased and various sacrifices were performed by him to enhance his position.
• Sacrifices were Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Vajapeya (chariot race) and Ashwamedha (horse sacrifice).
• The Sabhas and Samitis diminished in importance.

Social Structure

• The Varna system of social distinction became more distinct. This became less based on occupation and more hereditary.
• The four divisions of society in decreasing social ranking were: Brahmanas (priests), Kshatriyas (rulers), Vaishyas (agriculturists, traders and artisans), and Shudras (servers of the upper three classes).
• Women were not permitted to attend public assemblies like Sabhas and Samitis. Their position in society lowered.
• Child marriages became common.
• Sub-castes based on occupation also emerged.
• Gotras were institutionalised.

Economic Structure

• Agriculture was the chief occupation.
• Industrial work like metal work, pottery and carpentry work also was there.
• There was foreign trade also with Babylon.

Religion

• Prajapati (creator) and Vishnu (preserver) became important gods.
• Indra and Agni lost their significance.
• Importance of prayers diminished and rituals and sacrifices became more elaborate.
• The priestly class became very powerful and they dictated the rules of the rites and rituals.
• Because of this orthodoxy, Buddhism and Jainism emerged towards the end of this period.

Vedic Literature

• The word ‘Veda’ originated from the root ‘vid’ which means spiritual knowledge/subject of knowledge/means of acquiring knowledge.
• The four Vedas are: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.
• Rig Veda was composed during the Early Vedic Age. The other three were written in the Later Vedic Age. Rig Veda is the oldest religious text in the world. It contains 1028 hymns and is classified into 10 mandalas. It is a collection of prayers offered to Indra, Agni, Mitra and Varuna. The third mandala consists of Gayatri mantra dedicated to the sun god. Gayatri Mantra was composed by Vishwamitra. It mentions female goddesses such as Usha, Aditi, Surya. Goddess Laxmi is also mentioned.
• Yajur Veda - this deals with the ways to perform rituals. lt contains yagya/rituals related suktas. Rice is mentioned as Vrihi in this text. It talks about Shunya.
• Sama Veda - deals with music. Indian music is said to be originated from Sama Veda. It is an extension to Rigveda with 75 new suktas. It is considered to be the oldest text on Indian music. It mostly contains hymns dedicated to Sun God. It talks about the appearance and disappearance of Sarasvati river.
• Atharva Veda - contains spells and magical formula. It consists of charms and spells to ward of diseases.    It is also known as Brahmaveda. Its associated priest i.e. Brahma is considered highest of all four Vedic priests. It mentions the Vedic assemblies of Sabha and Samiti.

➢ Other Vedic texts were the:

• Brahmanas: full of ritualistic formulae and explain social and religious aspects of rituals and explains the meaning of sacrifices,
• Upanishads: also called Vedantas, 108 in number, source of Indian philosophy);
• Aranyakas: books of instructions also called Forest books
  (i) The great Indian epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana were also composed during this period.
  (ii) Facts about Literature:
  Aaitreya Brahmana talks about the duties of all four vamas.
  Mundaka Upanishad mentions the phrase Satyameva Javate.
  Shatapata Brahmana talks about ploughing rituals and the concept of rebirth.
  Chandogya Upanishad mentions three ashramas of Varna ashrama dharma.
  Shukla Yajurveda talks about the Rajasuya yagya.

Transitions from Rig Vedic to later Vedic

• Later Vedic period coincides with the Painted Grey ware sites. The later Vedic period people were acquainted with four types of pottery- black and red ware, black slipped ware, painted grey ware and red ware.
• The Vedic people continued to produce barley but during later Vedic period rice and wheat became their chief crops.
• In the later Vedic phase agriculture became the primary source of livelihood and life became settled and sedentary.
• In later Vedic times Rigvedic tribal assemblies lost importance and royal power increased at their cost. Women were no longer allowed to sit in sabha.
• The condition of women began deteriorating from the later Vedic period and they suffered on account of education and social roles which restricted them to be in the houses.
• The later Vedic period saw the rise of four-fold varna classification and the institution of gotra. The later Vedic time also saw an established ashrama system.
• The Rigvedic gods Indra and Agni lost relevance in later Vedic period and Prajapati came to occupy supreme position.